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the formation of vegetable mould-及32何蛍

弌傍�� the formation of vegetable mould 忖方�� 耽匈4000忖

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having been washed from the crowns into the furrows before the land 
was well clothed with turf�察�and it is impossible to tell what part 
worms may have played in the work。  Nevertheless from what we have 
seen�察�castings would certainly tend to flow and to be washed during 
heavy rain from the crowns into the furrows。  But as soon as a bed 
of fine earth had by any means been accumulated in the furrows�察�it 
would be more favourable for worms than the other parts�察�and a 
greater number of castings would be thrown up here than elsewhere�察�
and as the furrows on sloping land are usually directed so as to 
carry off the surface water�察�some of the finest earth would be 
washed from the castings which had been here ejected and be carried 
completely away。  The result would be that the furrows would be 
filled up very slowly�察�while the crowns would be lowered perhaps 
still more slowly by the flowing and rolling of the castings down 
their gentle inclinations into the furrows。

Nevertheless it might be expected that old furrows�察�especially 
those on a sloping surface�察�would in the course of time be filled 
up and disappear。  Some careful observers�察�however�察�who examined 
fields for me in Gloucestershire and Staffordshire could not detect 
any difference in the state of the furrows in the upper and lower 
parts of sloping fields�察�supposed to have been long in pasture�察�and 
they came to the conclusion that the crowns and furrows would last 
for an almost endless number of centuries。  On the other hand the 
process of obliteration seems to have commenced in some places。  
Thus in a grass field in North Wales�察�known to have been ploughed 
about 65 years ago�察�which sloped at an angle of 15 degrees to the 
north´east�察�the depth of the furrows ��only 7 feet apart�� was 
carefully measured�察�and was found to be about 4。5 inches in the 
upper part of the slope�察�and only 1 inch near the base�察�where they 
could be traced with difficulty。  On another field sloping at about 
the same angle to the south´west�察�the furrows were scarcely 
perceptible in the lower part�察�although these same furrows when 
followed on to some adjoining level ground were from 2。5 to 3。5 
inches in depth。  A third and closely similar case was observed。  
In a fourth case�察�the mould in a furrow in the upper part of a 
sloping field was 2。5 inches�察�and in the lower part 4。5 inches in 
thickness。

On the Chalk Downs at about a mile distance from Stonehenge�察�my son 
William examined a grass´covered�察�furrowed surface�察�sloping at from 
8 degrees to 10 degrees�察�which an old shepherd said had not been 
ploughed within the memory of man。  The depth of one furrow was 
measured at 16 points in a length of 68 paces�察�and was found to be 
deeper where the slope was greatest and where less earth would 
naturally tend to accumulate�察�and at the base it almost 
disappeared。  The thickness of the mould in this furrow in the 
upper part was 2。5 inches�察�which increased to 5 inches�察�a little 
above the steepest part of the slope�察�and at the base�察�in the 
middle of the narrow valley�察�at a point which the furrow if 
continued would have struck�察�it amounted to 7 inches。  On the 
opposite side of the valley�察�there were very faint�察�almost 
obliterated�察�traces of furrows。  Another analogous but not so 
decided a case was observed at a few miles' distance from 
Stonehenge。  On the whole it appears that the crowns and furrows on 
land formerly ploughed�察�but now covered with grass�察�tend slowly to 
disappear when the surface is inclined�察�and this is probably in 
large part due to the action of worms�察�but that the crowns and 
furrows last for a very long time when the surface is nearly level。

Formation and amount of mould over the Chalk Formation。Worm´
castings are often ejected in extraordinary numbers on steep�察�
grass´covered slopes�察�where the Chalk comes close to the surface�察�
as my son William observed near Winchester and elsewhere。  If such 
castings are largely washed away during heavy rains�察�it is 
difficult to understand at first how any mould can still remain on 
our Downs�察�as there does not appear any evident means for supplying 
the loss。  There is�察�moreover�察�another cause of loss�察�namely�察�in 
the percolation of the finer particles of earth into the fissures 
in the chalk and into the chalk itself。  These considerations led 
me to doubt for a time whether I had not exaggerated the amount of 
fine earth which flows or rolls down grass´covered slopes under the 
form of castings�察�and I sought for additional information。  In some 
places�察�the castings on Chalk Downs consist largely of calcareous 
matter�察�and here the supply is of course unlimited。  But in other 
places�察�for instance on a part of Teg Down near Winchester�察�the 
castings were all black and did not effervesce with acids。  The 
mould over the chalk was here only from 3 to 4 inches in thickness。  
So again on the plain near Stonehenge�察�the mould�察�apparently free 
from calcareous matter�察�averaged rather less than 3。5 inches in 
thickness。  Why worms should penetrate and bring up chalk in some 
places and not in others I do not know。

In many districts where the land is nearly level�察�a bed several 
feet in thickness of red clay full of unworn flints overlies the 
Upper Chalk。  This overlying matter�察�the surface of which has been 
converted into mould�察�consists of the undissolved residue from the 
chalk。  It may be well here to recall the case of the fragments of 
chalk buried beneath worm´castings on one of my fields�察�the angles 
of which were so completely rounded in the course of 29 years that 
the fragments now resembled water´worn pebbles。  This must have 
been effected by the carbonic acid in the rain and in the ground�察�
by the humus´acids�察�and by the corroding power of living roots。  
Why a thick mass of residue has not been left on the Chalk�察�
wherever the land is nearly level�察�may perhaps be accounted for by 
the percolation of the fine particles into the fissures�察�which are 
often present in the chalk and are either open or are filled up 
with impure chalk�察�or into the solid chalk itself。  That such 
percolation occurs can hardly be doubted。  My son collected some 
powdered and fragmentary chalk beneath the turf near Winchester�察�
the former was found by Colonel Parsons�察�R。 E。�察�to contain 10 per 
cent。�察�and the fragments 8 per cent。 of earthy matter。  On the 
flanks of the escarpment near Abinger in Surrey�察�some chalk close 
beneath a layer of flints�察�2 inches in thickness and covered by 8 
inches of mould�察�yielded a residue of 3。7 per cent。 of earthy 
matter。  On the other hand the Upper Chalk properly contains�察�as I 
was informed by the late David Forbes who had made many analyses�察�
only from 1 to 2 per cent。 of earthy matter�察�and two samples from 
pits near my house contained 1。3 and 0。6 per cent。  I mention these 
latter cases because�察�from the thickness of the overlying bed of 
red clay with flints�察�I had imagined that the underlying chalk 
might here be less pure than elsewhere。  The cause of the residue 
accumulating more in some places than in others�察�may be attributed 
to a layer of argillaceous matter having been left at an early 
period on the chalk�察�and this would check the subsequent 
percolation of earthy matter into it。

From the facts now given we may conclude that castings ejected on 
our Chalk Downs suffer some loss by the percolation of their finer 
matter into the chalk。  But such impure superficial chalk�察�when 
dissolved�察�would leave a larger supply of earthy matter to be added 
to the mould than in the case of pure chalk。  Besides the loss 
caused by percolation�察�some fine earth is certainly washed down the 
sloping grass´covered surfaces of our Downs。  The washing´down 
process�察�however�察�will be checked in the course of time�察�for 
although I do not know how thin a layer of mould suffices to 
support worms�察�yet a limit must at last be reached�察�and then their 
castings would cease to be ejected or would become scanty。

The following cases show that a considerable quantity of fine earth 
is washed down。  The thickness of the mould was measured at points 
12 yards apart across a small valley in the Chalk near Winchester。  
The sides sloped gently at first�察�then became inclined at about 20 
degrees�察�then more gently to near the bottom�察�which transversely 
was almost level and about 50 yards across。  In the bottom�察�the 
mean thickness of the mould from five measurements was 8。3 inches�察�
whilst on the sides of the valley�察�where the inclination varied 
between 14 degrees and 20 degrees�察�its mean thickness was rather 
less than 3。5 inches。  As the turf´covered bottom of the valley 
sloped at an angle of only between 2 degrees and 3 degrees�察�it is 
probable that most of the 8。3´inch layer of mould had been washed 
down from the flanks of the valley�察�and not from the upper part。  
But as a shepherd said that he had seen water flowing in this 
valley after the sudden thawing of snow�察�it is possible that some 
earth may have been brought down from the upper part�察�or�察�on the 
other hand�察�that some may have been carried further down the 
valley。  Closely similar results�察�with respect to the thickness of 
the mould�察�were obtained in a neighbouring valley。

St。 Catherine's Hill�察�near Winchester�察�is 327 feet in height�察�and 
consists of a steep cone of chalk about 0。25 of a mile in diameter。  
The upper part was converted by the Romans�察�or�察�as some think�察�by 
the ancient Britons�察�into an encampment�察�by the excavation of a 
deep and broad ditch all round it。  Most of the chalk removed 
during the work was thrown upwards�察�by which a projecting bank was 
formed�察�and this effectually prevents worm´castings ��which are 
numerous in parts���察�stones�察�and other objects from being washed or 
rolled into the ditch。  The mould on the upper and fortified part 
of the hill was found to be in most places only from 2。5 to 3。5 
inches in thickness�察�whereas it had accumulated at the foot of the 
embankment above the ditch to a thickness in most places of from 8 
to 9。5 inches。  On the embankment itself the mould was only 1 to 
1。5 inch in thickness�察�and within the ditch at the bottom it varied 
from 2。5 to

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