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commonly seize such objects by their pointed ends。  But with thin 
objects a certain number are drawn in by their broader ends。  They 
do not act in the same unvarying manner in all cases; as do most of 
the lower animals; for instance; they do not drag in leaves by 
their foot…stalks; unless the basal part of the blade is as narrow 
as the apex; or narrower than it。


When we behold a wide; turf…covered expanse; we should remember 
that its smoothness; on which so much of its beauty depends; is 
mainly due to all the inequalities having been slowly levelled by 
worms。  It is a marvellous reflection that the whole of the 
superficial mould over any such expanse has passed; and will again 
pass; every few years through the bodies of worms。  The plough is 
one of the most ancient and most valuable of man's inventions; but 
long before he existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed; and 
still continues to be thus ploughed by earth…worms。  It may be 
doubted whether there are many other animals which have played so 
important a part in the history of the world; as have these lowly 
organized creatures。  Some other animals; however; still more lowly 
organized; namely corals; have done far more conspicuous work in 
having constructed innumerable reefs and islands in the great 
oceans; but these are almost confined to the tropical zones。



Footnotes:

{1}  'Lecons de Geologie Pratique;' tom。 i。 1845; p。 140。

{2}  'Transactions Geolog。 Soc。' vol。 v。 p。 505。  Read November 1; 
1837。

{3}  'Histoire des progres de la Geologie;' tom。 i。 1847; p。 224。

{4}  'Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft。  Zoologie;' B。 xxviii。 1877; p。 
361。

{5}  'Gardeners' Chronicle;' April 17; 1869; p。 418。

{6}  Mr。 Darwin's attention was called by Professor Hensen to P。 E。 
Muller's work on Humus in 'Tidsskrift for Skovbrug;' Band iii。 Heft 
1 and 2; Copenhagen; 1878。  He had; however; no opportunity of 
consulting Muller's work。  Dr。 Muller published a second paper in 
1884 in the same periodicala Danish journal of forestry。  His 
results have also been published in German; in a volume entitled 
'Studien uber die naturlichen Humusformen; unter deren Einwirkung 
auf Vegetation und Boden;' 8vo。; Berlin; 1887。

{7}  'Bidrag till Skandinaviens Oligochaetfauna;' 1871。

{8}  'Die bis jetzt bekannten Arten aus der Familie der 
Regenwurmer;' 1845。

{9}  There is even some reason to believe that pressure is actually 
favourable to the growth of grasses; for Professor Buckman; who 
made many observations on their growth in the experimental gardens 
of the Royal Agricultural College; remarks ('Gardeners' Chronicle;' 
1854; p。 619):  〃Another circumstance in the cultivation of grasses 
in the separate form or small patches; is the impossibility of 
rolling or treading them firmly; without which no pasture can 
continue good。〃

{10}  I shall have occasion often to refer to M。 Perrier's 
admirable memoir; 'Organisation des Lombriciens terrestres' in 
'Archives de Zoolog。 exper。' tom。 iii。 1874; p。 372。  C。 F。 Morren 
('De Lumbrici terrestris Hist。 Nat。' 1829; p。 14) found that worms 
endured immersion for fifteen to twenty days in summer; but that in 
winter they died when thus treated。

{11}  Morren; 'De Lumbrici terrestris Hist。 Nat。' &c。; 1829; p。 67。

{12}  'De Lumbrici terrestris Hist。 Nat。' &c。; p。 14。

{13}  Histolog。  Untersuchungen uber die Regenwurmer。  'Zeitschrift 
fur wissenschaft。  Zoologie;' B。 xix。; 1869; p。 611。

{14}  For instance; Mr。 Bridgman and Mr。 Newman ('The Zoologist;' 
vol。 vii。 1849; p。 2576); and some friends who observed worms for 
me。

{15}  'Familie der Regenwurmer;' 1845; p。 18。

{16}  'The Zoologist;' vol。 vii。 1849; p。 2576。

{17}  'Familie der Regenwurmer;' p。 13。  Dr。 Sturtevant states in 
the 'New York Weekly Tribune' (May 19; 1880) that he kept three 
worms in a pot; which was allowed to become extremely dry; and 
these worms were found 〃all entwined together; forming a round mass 
and in good condition。〃

{18}  'De Lumbrici terrestris Hist。 Nat。' p。 19。

{19}  'Archives de Zoologie experimentale;' tom。 vii。 1878; p。 394。  
When I wrote the above passage; I was not aware that Krukenberg 
('Untersuchungen a。 d。 physiol。  Inst。 d。 Univ。  Heidelberg;' Bd。 
ii。 p。 37; 1877) had previously investigated the digestive juice of 
Lumbricus。  He states that it contains a peptic; and diastatic; as 
well as a tryptic ferment。

{20}  On the action of the pancreatic ferment; see 'A Text…Book of 
Physiology;' by Michael Foster; 2nd edit。 pp。 198…203。  1878。

{21}  Schmulewitsch; 'Action des Sucs digestifs sur la Cellulose。'  
Bull。 de l'Acad。 Imp。 de St。 Petersbourg; tom。 xxv。 p。 549。  1879。 

{22}  Claparede doubts whether saliva is secreted by worms:  see 
'Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft。  Zoologie;' B。 xix。 1869; p。 601。

{23}  Perrier; 'Archives de Zoolog。 exper。' July; 1874; pp。 416; 
419。

{24}  'Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft。  Zoologie;' B。 xix; 1869; pp。 
603…606。

{25}  De Vries; 'Landwirth。 Jahrbucher;' 1881; p。 77。

{26}  M。 Foster; 'A Text…Book of Physiology;' 2nd edit。 1878; p。 
243。

{27}  M。 Foster; ut sup。 p。 200。

{28}  Claparede remarks ('Zeitschrift fur wisseuschaft。  Zoolog。' 
B。 19; 1869; p。 602) that the pharynx appears from its structure to 
be adapted for suction。

{29}  An account of her observations is given in the 'Gardeners' 
Chronicle;' March 28th; 1868; p。 324。

{30}  London's 'Gard。 Mag。' xvii。 p。 216; as quoted in the 
'Catalogue of the British Museum Worms;' 1865; p。 327。

{31}  'Familie der Regenwurmer;' p。 19。

{32}  In these narrow triangles the apical angle is 9 degrees 34 
seconds; and the basal angles 85 degrees 13 seconds。  In the 
broader triangles the apical angle is 19 degrees 10 seconds and the 
basal angles 80 degrees 25 seconds。

{33}  See his interesting work; 'Souvenirs entomologiques;' 1879; 
pp。 168…177。

{34}  Mobius; 'Die Bewegungen der Thiere;' &c。; 1873; p。 111。

{35}  'Annals and Mag。 of N。 History;' series ii。 vol。 ix。 1852; p。 
333。

{36}  'Archives de Zoolog。 exper。' tom。 iii。 1874; p。 405。

{37}  I state this on the authority of Semper; 'Reisen im Archipel 
der Philippinen;' Th。 ii。 1877; p。 30。

{38}  Dr。 King gave me some worms collected near Nice; which; as he 
believes; had constructed these castings。  They were sent to M。 
Perrier; who with great kindness examined and named them for me:  
they consisted of Perichaeta affinis; a native of Cochin China and 
of the Philippines; P。 Luzonica; a native of Luzon in the 
Philippines; and P。 Houlleti; which lives near Calcutta。  M。 
Perrier informs me that species of Perichaeta have been naturalized 
in the gardens near Montpellier and in Algiers。  Before I had any 
reason to suspect that the tower…like castings from Nice had been 
formed by worms not endemic in the country; I was greatly surprised 
to see how closely they resembled castings sent to me from near 
Calcutta; where it is known that species of Perichaeta abound。

{39}  'Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft。  Zoolog。'  B。 xxviii。 1877; p。 
364。

{40}  'Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft。  Zoolog。' B。 xxviii。 1877; p。 
356。

{41}  Perrier; 'Archives de Zoolog。 exper。' tom。 3; p。 378; 1874。

{42}  This case is given in a postscript to my paper in the 
'Transact。 Geolog。 Soc。'  (Vol。 v。 p。 505); and contains a serious 
error; as in the account received I mistook the figure 30 for 80。  
The tenant; moreover; formerly said that he had marled the field 
thirty years before; but was now positive that this was done in 
1809; that is twenty…eight years before the first examination of 
the field by my friend。  The error; as far as the figure 80 is 
concerned; was corrected in an article by me; in the 'Gardeners' 
Chronicle;' 1844; p。 218。

{43}  These pits or pipes are still in process of formation。  
During the last forty years I have seen or heard of five cases; in 
which a circular space; several feet in diameter; suddenly fell in; 
leaving on the field an open hole with perpendicular sides; some 
feet in depth。  This occurred in one of my own fields; whilst it 
was being rolled; and the hinder quarters of the shaft horse fell 
in; two or three cart…loads of rubbish were required to fill up the 
hole。  The subsidence occurred where there was a broad depression; 
as if the surface had fallen in at several former periods。  I heard 
of a hole which must have been suddenly formed at the bottom of a 
small shallow pool; where sheep had been washed during many years; 
and into which a man thus occupied fell to his great terror。  The 
rain…water over this whole district sinks perpendicularly into the 
ground; but the chalk is more porous in certain places than in 
others。  Thus the drainage from the overlying clay is directed to 
certain points; where a greater amount of calcareous matter is 
dissolved than elsewhere。  Even narrow open channels are sometimes 
formed in the solid chalk。  As the chalk is slowly dissolved over 
the whole country; but more in some parts than in others; the 
undissolved residuethat is the overlying mass of red clay with 
flints;likewise sinks slowly down; and tends to fill up the pipes 
or cavities。  But the upper part of the red clay holds together; 
aided probably by the roots of plants; for a longer time than the 
lower parts; and thus forms a roof; which sooner or later falls in; 
as in the above mentioned five cases。  The downward movement of the 
clay may be compared with that of a glacier; but is incomparably 
slower; and this movement accounts for a singular fact; namely; 
that the much elongated flints which are embedded in the chalk in a 
nearly horizontal position; are commonly found standing nearly or 
quite upright in the red clay。  This fact is so common that the 
workmen assured me that this was their natural position。  I roughly 
measured one which stood vertically; and it was of the same length 
and of the same relative thickness as one of my arms。  These 
elongated flints must get placed in their upright position; on the 
same principle that a trunk of a tree left on a glacier assumes a 
position parallel to the line of motion。  The flints in the clay 
which form alm

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