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the　ten　commandments　were　promulgated　immediately

after　his　third　descent。



Moses　makes　frequent　mention　of　ancient　books　of

the　Hebrews；　but　describes　none；　except　the　two　tables

on　which　God　wrote　the　ten　commandments。　These

he　tells　us；　were　of　polished　stone；　engraven　on　both

sides　and　as　Calmet　remarks：　〃it　is　probable　that

Moses　would　not　have　observed　to　us　these　two　particulars

so　often　as　he　does；　were　it　not　to　distinguish

them　from　other　books；　which　were　made　of　tables；

not　of　stone；　but　of　wood　and　curiously　engraven；　but

on　one　side　only。〃



It　cannot　be　said　that　Moses　uses　any　language

which　can　be　construed　to　mean　the　employment　of

rolls　of　papyrus；　or　barks　of　trees；　much　less　of　parchment。

We　have　therefore　reason　to　believe　that　by

the　term　book；　he　always　means　table…books；　made　of

small　thin　boards　or　plates。



The　edicts；　as　well　as　the　letters　of　kings；　were　written

upon　tablets　and　sent　to　the　various　provinces；

sealed　with　their　signets。　Scripture　plainly　alludes

to　the　custom　of　sealing　up　letters；　edicts　and　the　tablets

on　which　the　prophets　wrote　their　visions。



The　practice　of　writing　upon　rolls　made　of　the　barks

of　trees　is　very　ancient。　It　is　alluded　to　in　the　Book

of　Job：　〃Oh！　that　mine　adversary　had　written　a　book；

surely　I　would　take　it　upon　my　shoulders；　and　bind

it　as　a　crown　to　me。〃　（Old　version。）　The　new　one

runs：　〃And　that　I　had　the　indictment　which　mine

adversary　hath　written！〃　The　rolls；　or　volumes；

generally　speaking；　were　written　upon　one　side　only。

This　is　intimated　by　Ezekiel　who　observes　that　he

saw　one　of　in　extraordinary　form　written　on　both

sides：　〃And　when　I　looked；　behold；　an　Hand　was　sent

unto　me；　and　lo！　a　roll　of　a　book　was　therein；　and　he

spread　it　before　me；　and　it　was　written　within　and

without。〃



To　have　been　able　to　write　on　dry　tablets　of　wood

or　barks　of　trees　with　the　reed　or　brush；　the　then　only

ink…writing　instruments　in　vogue　would　have　necessitated

the　employment　of　lampblack　suspended　in　a

vehicle　of　thick　gum；　or　in　the　form　of　a　paint。　Both

of　these　maybe　termed　pigmentary　inks。　The　use　of

thin　inks　would　have　caused　spreading　or　blotting　and

thus　rendered　the　writing　illegible。



The　Encyclopaedia　Britannica　generalizes　its　remarks

on　this　subject：



〃The　earliest　writings　were　purely　monumental

and　accordingly　those　materials　were　chosen　which

were　supposed　to　last　the　longest。　The　same　idea

of　perpetuity　which　in　architecture　finds　its　most

striking　exposition　in　the　pyramids　was　repeated；

in　the　case　of　literary　records；　in　the　two　columns

mentioned　by　Josephus；　the　one　of　stone　and　the

other　of　brick；　on　which　the　children　of　Seth　wrote

their　inventions　and　astronomical　discoveries；　in

the　pillars　in　Crete　on　which；　according　to　Porphyry；

the　ceremonies　of　the　Corybantes　were　inscribed；

in　the　leaden　tablets　containinlu　the　works　of　Hesiod；

deposited　in　the　temple　of　the　Muses；　in　Boeotia；

in　the　ten　commandments　on　stone　delivered　by

Moses；　and　in　the　laws　of　Solon；　inscribed　on　planks

of　wood。　The　notion　of　a　literary　production　surviving

the　destruction　of　the　materials　on　which　it

was　first　writtenthe　'momentum；　aere　perennius'

of　Horace's　ambitionwas　unknown　before　the　discovery

of　substances　for　systematic　transcription。



〃Tablets　of　ivory　or　metal　were　in　common　use

among　the　Greeks　and　Romans。　When　made　of

woodsometimes　of　citron；　but　usually　of　beech　or

firtheir　inner　sides　were　coated　with　wax；　on

which　the　letters　were　traced　with　a　pointed　pen　or

stiletto　（stylus）；　one　end　of　which　was　used　for

erasure。　It　was　with　his　stylus　that　Caesar　stabbed

Casca　in　the　arm　when　attacked　by　his　murderers。

Wax　tablets　of　this　kind　continued　in　partial　use　in

Europe　during　the　middle　ages；　the　oldest　extant

specimen；　now　in　the　museum　at　Florence；　belongs

to　the　year　1301。〃



Later　the　Hebrew　Scriptures　were　written　in　ink　or

paint　upon　the　skins　of　ceremonially　clean　animals　or

even　birds。　These　were　rolled　upon　sticks　and　fastened

with　a　cord；　the　ends　of　which　were　sealed　when

security　was　an　object。　They　were　written　in　columns；

and　usually　upon　one　side；　only。　The　writing　was

from　right　to　left；　the　upper　margin　was　three　fingers

broad；　the　lower　one　four　fingers；　a　breadth　of　two

fingers　separated　the　columns。　The　columns　ran　across

the　width　of　the　sheet；　the　rolled　ends　of　which　were

held　vertically　in　the　respective　hands。　When　one

column　was　read；　another　was　exposed　to　view　by　unrolling

it　from　the　end　in　the　left　hand；　while　the

former　was　hidden　from　view　by　rolling　up　the　end

grasped　by　the　right　band。　The　pen　was　a　reed；　the

ink　black；　carried　in　a　bottle　suspended　from　the　girdle。



The　Samaritan　Pentateuch　is　very　ancient；　as　is

proved　by　the　criticisms　of　Talmudic　writers。　A　copy

of　it　was　acquired　in　1616　by　Pietro　della　Valle；　one

of　the　first　discoverers　of　the　cuneiform　inscriptions。

It　was　thus　introduced　to　the　notice　of　Europe。　It　is

claimed　by　the　Samaritans　of　Nablus　that　their　copy

was　written　by　Abisha；　the　great…grandson　of　Aaron；

in　the　thirteenth　year　of　the　settlement　of　the　land　of

Canaan　by　the　children　of　Israel。　The　copies　of　it

brought　to　Europe　are　all　written　in　black　ink　on　vellum

or　〃cotton〃　paper；　and　vary　from　12mo　to

folio。　The　scroll　used　by　the　Samaritans　is　written　in

gold　letters。　（See　Smith's　〃Dictionary　of　the　Bible；〃

vol。　III；　pp。　1106…1118。）　Its　claims　to　great　antiquity

are　not　admitted　by　scholars。



The　enumeration　of　some　of　the　modes　of　writing

may　be　interesting：



The　Mexican　writing　is　in　vertical　columns；　beginning

at　the　bottom。



The　Chinese　and　Japanese　write　in　vertical　columns；

beginning　at　the　top　and　passing　from　left　to　right。



The　Egyptian　hieroglyphics　are　written　invertical

columns　or　horizontal　lines　according　to　the　shape　and

position　of　the　tablet。　It　is　said　that　with　the　horizontal

writing　the　direction　is　indifferent；　but　that　the

figures　of　men　and　animals　face　the　beginning　of　the

line。　With　figures；　the　units　stand　on　the　left。



The　Egyptians　also　wrote　from　right　to　left　in　the

hieratic　and　demotic　and　enchorial　styles。　The　Palasgians

did　the　same；　and　were　followed　by　the　Etruscans。

In　the　demotic　character；　Dr。　Brugsch　remarks

that　though　the　general　direction　of　the　writing　was

usually　from　right　to　left；　yet　the　individual　letters　were

formed　from　left　to　right；　as　is　evident　from　the　unfinished

ends　of　horizontal　letters　when　the　ink　failed

in　the　pen。



In　writing　numbers　in　the　hieratic　and　enchorial

the　units　were　placed　to　the　left。　The　Arabs　write

from　right　to　left；　but　received　their　numerals　from

India；　whence　they　call　them　〃Hindee；〃　and　there　the

arrangement　of　their　numerals　is　like　our　own；　units

to　the　right。



The　following　noteworthy　passage　is　taken　from

Humphreys'　work　〃On　the　Origin　and　Progress　of　the

Art　of　Writing：〃



〃Nearly　all　the　principal　methods　of　ancient

writing　may　be　divided　into　square　capitals；　rounded

capitals；　and　cursive　letters；　the　square　capitals

being　termed　simply　capitals；　the　rounded　capitals

uncials；　and　the　small　letters；　or　such　as　had

changed　their　form　during　the　creation　of　a　running

hand；　minuscule。　Capitals　are；　strictly　speaking；

such　letters　as　retain　the　earliest　settled　form　of

an　alphabet；　being　generally　of　such　angular

shapes　as　could　conveniently　be　carved　on　wood　or

stone；　or　engraved　in　metal；　to　be　stamped　on

coins。　The　earliest　Latin　MSS。　known　are　written

entirely　in　capitals　like　inscriptions　in　metal　or

marble。

　　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*　　　　*



The　uncial　letters；　as　they　are　termed；　appear

to　have　arisen　as　writing　on　papyrus　or　vellum　became

common；　when　many　of　the　straight　lines　of

the　capitals；　in　that　kind　of　writing；　gradually　acquired

a　curved　form；　to　facilitate　their　more　rapid

execution。　However　this　may　be；　from　the　sixth

to　the　eighth；　or　even　10th　century；　these　uncials

or　partly　rounded　capitals　prevail。



〃The　modern　minuscule；　differing　from　the　ancient

cursive　character；　appears　to　have　arisen　in

the　following　manner：　During　the　6th　and　7th

centuries；　a　kind　of　transition　style　prevailed　in

Italy　and　some　other　parts　of　Europe；　the　letters

composing　which　have　been　termed　semi…uncials；

which；　in　a　further　transition；　became　more　like

those　of　the　old　Roman　cursive。　This　manner；

when　definitely　formed；　became　what　is　now　termed

the　minuscule　manner；　it　began　to　prevail　over

uncials　in　a　certain　class　of　MSS。　about　the　8th

century；　and　towards　the　10th　its　general　use　was；

with　few　exceptions；　established。　It　is　said　to

have　been　occasionally　used　as　early　as　the　5th

century；　but　I　am　unable　to　cite　an　authentic　existing

monument。　The　Psalter　of　Alfred　the　Great；

written　in　the　9th　century；　is　in　a　small　Roman

cursive　hand；　which　has　induced　Casley　to　consider

it　the　work　of　some　Italian　ecclesiastic。〃



The　learned　who　have　made　a　life　study　of　the　history

of　the　most　ancient　manuscripts；　mention　them

specifically　in　great　number　and　of　different　countries；

which　would　seem　to　indicate　that　the　art　of　handwriting

had　made　great　strides　in　the　very　olden

times；　many　nations　had　adopted　it；　and　B。　C。　650　〃it

had　spread　itself　over　the　（then　known）　greater　part

of　the　civilized　world。〃



We　can　well　believe　this　to　be　true　in　reading　about

the　ancient　libraries；　notwithstanding　that　some　rulers

had　sought　to　prohibit　its　exercise。




Plato；　who　lived　B。　C。　350；　expresses　his　views　of

the　importance　of　writing　in　his　imaginary　colloquy

between　Thamus；　king　of　Egypt；　and　Thoth；　the　god

of　the　liberal　arts　of　the　Egyptians；　he　acquaints　us：



〃That　the　discourse　turned　upon　letters。　Thoth

maintained　the　value　of　Writing；　as　capable　of　making

the　People　wiser；　increasing　t