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much　more　advantageous　than　is　necessary。　The　example　of　the

churches　of　Scotland；　of　Geneva；　and　of　several　other　Protestant

churches；　may　satisfy　us　that　in　so　creditable　a　profession；　in

which　education　is　so　easily　procured；　the　hopes　of　much　more

moderate　benefices　will　draw　a　sufficient　number　of　learned；

decent；　and　respectable　men　into　holy　orders。

　　　　　In　professions　in　which　there　are　no　benefices；　such　as　law

and　physic；　if　an　equal　proportion　of　people　were　educated　at　the

public　expense；　the　competition　would　soon　be　so　great　as　to　sink

very　much　their　pecuniary　reward。　It　might　then　not　be　worth　any

man's　while　to　educate　his　son　to　either　of　those　professions　at

his　own　expense。　They　would　be　entirely　abandoned　to　such　as　had

been　educated　by　those　public　charities；　whose　numbers　and

necessities　would　oblige　them　in　general　to　content　themselves

with　a　very　miserable　recompense；　to　the　entire　degradation　of

the　now　respectable　professions　of　law　and　physic。

　　　　　That　unprosperous　race　of　men　commonly　called　men　of　letters

are　pretty　much　in　the　situation　which　lawyers　and　physicians

probably　would　be　in　upon　the　foregoing　supposition。　In　every

part　of　Europe　the　greater　part　of　them　have　been　educated　for

the　church；　but　have　been　hindered　by　different　reasons　from

entering　into　holy　orders。　They　have　generally；　therefore；　been

educated　at　the　public　expense；　and　their　numbers　are　everywhere

so　great　as　commonly　to　reduce　the　price　of　their　labour　to　a

very　paltry　recompense。

　　　　　Before　the　invention　of　the　art　of　printing；　the　only

employment　by　which　a　man　of　letters　could　make　anything　by　his

talents　was　that　of　a　public　or　private　teacher；　or　by

communicating　to　other　people　the　curious　and　useful　knowledge

which　he　had　acquired　himself：　and　this　is　still　surely　a　more

honourable；　a　more　useful；　and　in　general　even　a　more　profitable

employment　than　that　other　of　writing　for　a　bookseller；　to　which

the　art　of　printing　has　given　occasion。　The　time　and　study；　the

genius；　knowledge；　and　application　requisite　to　qualify　an

eminent　teacher　of　the　sciences；　are　at　least　equal　to　what　is

necessary　for　the　greatest　practitioners　in　law　and　physic。　But

the　usual　reward　of　the　eminent　teacher　bears　no　proportion　to

that　of　the　lawyer　or　physician；　because　the　trade　of　the　one　is

crowded　with　indigent　people　who　have　been　brought　up　to　it　at

the　public　expense；　whereas　those　of　the　other　two　are　encumbered

with　very　few　who　have　not　been　educated　at　their　own。　The　usual

recompense；　however；　of　public　and　private　teachers；　small　as　it

may　appear；　would　undoubtedly　be　less　than　it　is；　if　the

competition　of　those　yet　more　indigent　men　of　letters　who　write

for　bread　was　not　taken　out　of　the　market。　Before　the　invention

of　the　art　of　printing；　a　scholar　and　a　beggar　seem　to　have　been

terms　very　nearly　synonymous。　The　different　governors　of　the

universities　before　that　time　appear　to　have　often　granted

licences　to　their　scholars　to　beg。

　　　　　In　ancient　times；　before　any　charities　of　this　kind　had　been

established　for　the　education　of　indigent　people　to　the　learned

professions；　the　rewards　of　eminent　teachers　appear　to　have　been

much　more　considerable。　Isocrates；　in　what　is　called　his

discourse　against　the　sophists；　reproaches　the　teachers　of　his

own　times　with　inconsistency。　〃They　make　the　most　magnificent

promises　to　their　scholars；〃　says　he；　〃and　undertake　to　teach

them　to　be　wise；　to　be　happy；　and　to　be　just；　and　in　return　for

so　important　a　service　they　stipulate　the　paltry　reward　of　four

or　five　minae。　They　who　teach　wisdom；〃　continues　he；　ought

certainly　to　be　wise　themselves；　but　if　any　man　were　to　sell　such

a　bargain　for　such　a　price；　he　would　be　convicted　of　the　most

evident　folly。〃　He　certainly　does　not　mean　here　to　exaggerate　the

reward；　and　we　may　be　assured　that　it　was　not　less　than　he

represents　it。　Four　minae　were　equal　to　thirteen　pounds　six

shillings　and　eightpence：　five　minae　to　sixteen　pounds　thirteen

shillings　and　fourpence。　Something　not　less　than　the　largest　of

those　two　sums；　therefore；　must　at　that　time　have　been　usually

paid　to　the　most　eminent　teachers　at　Athens。　Isocrates　himself

demanded　ten　minae；　or　thirty…three　pounds　six　shillings　and

eightpence；　from　each　scholar。　When　he　taught　at　Athens；　he　is

said　to　have　had　a　hundred　scholars。　I　understand　this　to　be　the

number　whom　he　taught　at　one　time；　or　who　attended　what　we　could

call　one　course　of　lectures；　a　number　which　will　not　appear

extraordinary　from　so　great　a　city　to　so　famous　a　teacher；　who

taught；　too；　what　was　at　that　time　the　most　fashionable　of　all

sciences；　rhetoric。　He　must　have　made；　therefore；　by　each　course

of　lectures；　a　thousand　minae；　or　L3333　6s。　8d。　A　thousand　minae；

accordingly；　is　said　by　Plutarch　in　another　place；　to　have　been

his　Didactron；　or　usual　price　of　teaching。　Many　other　eminent

teachers　in　those　times　appear　to　have　acquired　great　fortunes。

Gorgias　made　a　present　to　the　temple　of　Delphi　of　his　own　statue

in　solid　gold。　We　must　not；　I　presume；　suppose　that　it　was　as

large　as　the　life。　His　way　of　living；　as　well　as　that　of　Hippias

and　Protagoras；　two　other　eminent　teachers　of　those　times；　is

represented　by　Plato　as　splendid　even　to　ostentation。　Plato

himself　is　said　to　have　lived　with　a　good　deal　of　magnificence。

Aristotle；　after　having　been　tutor　to　Alexander；　and　most

munificently　rewarded；　as　it　is　universally　agreed；　both　by　him

and　his　father　Philip；　thought　it　worth　while；　notwithstanding；

to　return　to　Athens；　in　order　to　resume　the　teaching　of　his

school。　Teachers　of　the　sciences　were　probably　in　those　times

less　common　than　they　came　to　be　in　an　age　or　two　afterwards；

when　the　competition　had　probably　somewhat　reduced　both　the　price

of　their　labour　and　the　admiration　for　their　persons。　The　most

eminent　of　them；　however；　appear　always　to　have　enjoyed　a　degree

of　consideration　much　superior　to　any　of　the　like　profession　in

the　present　times。　The　Athenians　sent　Carneades　the　Academic；　and

Diogenes　the　Stoic；　upon　a　solemn　embassy　to　Rome；　and　though

their　city　had　then　declined　from　its　former　grandeur；　it　was

still　an　independent　and　considerable　republic。　Carneades；　too；

was　a　Babylonian　by　birth；　and　as　there　never　was　a　people　more

jealous　of　admitting　foreigners　to　public　offices　than　the

Athenians；　their　consideration　for　him　must　have　been　very　great。

　　　　　This　inequality　is　upon　the　whole；　perhaps；　rather

advantageous　than　hurtful　to　the　public。　It　may　somewhat　degrade

the　profession　of　a　public　teacher；　but　the　cheapness　of　literary

education　is　surely　an　advantage　which　greatly　overbalances　this

trifling　inconveniency。　The　public；　too；　might　derive　still

greater　benefit　from　it；　if　the　constitution　of　those　schools　and

colleges；　in　which　education　is　carried　on；　was　more　reasonable

than　it　is　at　present　through　the　greater　part　of　Europe。

　　　　　Thirdly；　the　policy　of　Europe；　by　obstructing　the　free

circulation　of　labour　and　stock　both　from　employment　to

employment；　and　from　place　to　place；　occasions　in　some　cases　a

very　incovenient　inequality　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and

disadvantages　of　their　different　employments。

　　　　　The　Statute　of　Apprenticeship　obstructs　the　free　circulation

of　labour　from　one　employment　to　another；　even　in　the　same　place。

The　exclusive　privileges　of　corporations　obstruct　it　from　one

place　to　another；　even　in　the　same　employment。

　　　　　It　frequently　happens　that　while　high　wages　are　given　to　the

workmen　in　one　manufacture；　those　in　another　are　obliged　to

content　themselves　with　bare　subsistence。　The　one　is　in　an

advancing　state；　and　has；　therefore；　a　continual　demand　for　new

bands：　the　other　is　in　a　declining　state；　and　the　superabundance

of　hands　is　continually　increasing。　Those　two　manufactures　may

sometimes　be　in　the　same　town；　and　sometimes　in　the　same

neighbourhood；　without　being　able　to　lend　the　least　assistance　to

one　another。　The　Statute　of　Apprenticeship　may　oppose　it　in　the

one　case；　and　both　that　and　an　exclusive　corporation　in　the

other。　In　many　different　manufactures；　however；　the　operations

are　so　much　alike；　that　the　workmen　could　easily　change　trades

with　one　another；　if　those　absurd　laws　did　not　hinder　them。　The

arts　of　weaving　plain　linen　and　plain　silk；　for　example；　are

almost　entirely　the　same。　That　of　weaving　plain　woollen　is

somewhat　different；　but　the　difference　is　so　insignificant　that

either　a　linen　or　a　silk　weaver　might　become　a　tolerable　work　in

a　very　few　days。　If　any　of　those　three　capital　manufactures；

therefore；　were　decaying；　the　workmen　might　find　a　resource　in

one　of　the　other　two　which　was　in　a　more　prosperous　condition；

and　their　wages　would　neither　rise　too　high　in　the　thriving；　nor

sink　too　low　in　the　decaying　manufacture。　The　linen　manufacture

indeed　is；　in　England；　by　a　particular　statute；　open　to

everybody；　but　as　it　is　not　much　cultivated　through　the　greater

part　of　the　country；　it　can　afford　no　general　resource　to　the

workmen　of　other　decaying　manufactures；　who；　wherever　the　Statute

of　Apprenticeship　takes　place；　have　no　other　choice　but　either　to

come　upon　the　parish；　or　to　work　as　common　labourers；　for　which；

by　their　habits；　they　are　much　worse　qualified　than　for　any　sort

of　manufacture　that　bears　any　resemblance　to　their　own。　They

generally；　therefore；　choose　to　come　upon　the　parish。

　　　　　Whatever　obstructs　the　free　circulation　of　labour　from　one

employment　to　another　obstructs　that　of　stock　likewise；　the

quantity　of　stock　which　can　be　employed　in　any　branch　of　business

depending　very　much　upon　that　of　the　labour　which　can　be　employed

in　it。　Corporation　laws；　however；　give　less　obstruction　to　the

free　circulation　of　stock　from　one　place　to　another　than　to　that

of　labour。　It　is　everywhere　much　easier　for　a　wealthy　merchant　to

obtain　the　privilege　of　trading　in　a　town　corporate；