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arises　a　demand　for　every　sort　of　material　which　human　invention

can　employ；　either　usefully　or　ornamentally；　in　building；　dress；

equipage；　or　household　furniture；　for　the　fossils　and　minerals

contained　in　the　bowels　of　the　earth；　the　precious　metals；　and

the　precious　stones。

　　　　　Food　is　in　this　manner　not　only　the　original　source　of　rent；

but　every　other　part　of　the　produce　of　land　which　afterwards

affords　rent　derives　that　part　of　its　value　from　the　improvement

of　the　powers　of　labour　in　producing　food　by　means　of　the

improvement　and　cultivation　of　land。

　　　　　Those　other　parts　of　the　produce　of　land；　however；　which

afterwards　afford　rent；　do　not　afford　it　always。　Even　in　improved

and　cultivated　countries；　the　demand　for　them　is　not　always　such

as　to　afford　a　greater　price　than　what　is　sufficient　to　pay　the

labour；　and　replace；　together　with　it　ordinary　profits；　the　stock

which　must　be　employed　in　bringing　them　to　market。　Whether　it　is

or　is　not　such　depends　upon　different　circumstances。

　　　　　Whether　a　coal…mine；　for　example；　can　afford　any　rent

depends　partly　upon　its　fertility；　and　partly　upon　its　situation。

　　　　　A　mine　of　any　kind　may　be　said　to　be　either　fertile　or

barren；　according　as　the　quantity　of　mineral　which　can　be　brought

from　it　by　a　certain　quantity　of　labour　is　greater　or　less　than

what　can　be　brought　by　an　equal　quantity　from　the　greater　part　of

other　mines　of　the　same　kind。

　　　　　Some　coal…mines　advantageously　situated　cannot　be　wrought　on

account　of　their　barrenness。　The　produce　does　not　pay　the

expense。　They　can　afford　neither　profit　nor　rent。

　　　　　There　are　some　of　which　the　produce　is　barely　sufficient　to

pay　the　labour；　and　replace；　together　with　it　ordinary　profits；

the　stock　employed　in　working　them。　They　afford　some　profit　to

the　undertaker　of　the　work；　but　no　rent　to　the　landlord。　They　can

be　wrought　advantageously　by　nobody　but　the　landlord；　who；　being

himself　undertaker　of　the　work；　gets　the　ordinary　profit　of　the

capital　which　he　employs　in　it。　Many　coal…mines　in　Scotland　are

wrought　in　this　manner；　and　can　be　wrought　in　no　other。　The

landlord　will　allow　nobody　else　to　work　them　without　paying　some

rent；　and　nobody　can　afford　to　pay　any。

　　　　　Other　coal…mines　in　the　same　country；　sufficiently　fertile；

cannot　be　wrought　on　account　of　their　situation。　A　quantity　of

mineral　sufficient　to　defray　the　expense　of　working　could　be

brought　from　the　mine　by　the　ordinary；　or　even　less　than　the

ordinary；　quantity　of　labour；　but　in　an　inland　country；　thinly

inhabited；　and　without　either　good　roads　or　water…carriage；　this

quantity　could　not　be　sold。

　　　　　Coals　are　a　less　agreeable　fuel　than　wood：　they　are　said；

too；　to　be　less　wholesome。　The　expense　of　coals；　therefore；　at

the　place　where　they　are　consumed；　must　generally　be　somewhat

less　than　that　of　wood。

　　　　　The　price　of　wood　again　varies　with　the　state　of

agriculture；　nearly　in　the　same　manner；　and　exactly　for　the　same

reason；　as　the　price　of　cattle。　In　its　rude　beginnings　the

greater　part　of　every　country　is　covered　with　wood；　which　is　then

a　mere　encumberance　of　no　value　to　the　landlord；　who　would　gladly

give　it　to　anybody　for　the　cutting。　As　agriculture　advances；　the

woods　are　partly　cleared　by　the　progress　of　tillage；　and　partly

go　to　decay　in　consequence　of　the　increased　number　of　cattle。

These；　though　they　do　not　increase　in　the　same　proportion　as

corn；　which　is　altogether　the　acquisition　of　human　industry；　yet

multiply　under　the　care　and　protection　of　men；　who　store　up　in

the　season　of　plenty　what　may　maintain　them　in　that　of　scarcity；

who　through　the　whole　year　furnish　them　with　a　greater　quantity

of　food　than　uncultivated　nature　provides　for　them；　and　who　by

destroying　and　extirpating　their　enemies；　secure　them　in　the　free

enjoyment　of　all　that　she　provides。　Numerous　herds　of　cattle；

when　allowed　to　wander　through　the　woods；　though　they　do　not

destroy　the　old　trees；　hinder　any　young　ones　from　coming　up　so

that　in　the　course　of　a　century　or　two　the　whole　forest　goes　to

ruin。　The　scarcity　of　wood　then　raises　its　price。　It　affords　a

good　rent；　and　the　landlord　sometimes　finds　that　he　can　scarce

employ　his　best　lands　more　advantageously　than　in　growing　barren

timber；　of　which　the　greatness　of　the　profit　often　compensates

the　lateness　of　the　returns。　This　seems　in　the　present　times　to

be　nearly　the　state　of　things　in　several　parts　of　Great　Britain；

where　the　profit　of　planting　is　found　to　be　equal　to　that　of

either　corn　or　pasture。　The　advantage　which　the　landlord　derives

from　planting　can　nowhere　exceed；　at　least　for　any　considerable

time；　the　rent　which　these　could　afford　him；　and　in　an　inland

country　which　is　highly　cultivated；　it　will　frequently　not　fall

much　short　of　this　rent。　Upon　the　sea…coast　of　a　well　improved

country；　indeed；　if　coals　can　conveniently　be　had　for　fuel；　it

may　sometimes　be　cheaper　to　bring　barren　timber　for　building　from

less　cultivated　foreign　countries　than　to　raise　it　at　home。　In

the　new　town　of　Edinburgh；　built　within　these　few　years；　there　is

not；　perhaps；　a　single　stick　of　Scotch　timber。

　　　　　Whatever　may　be　the　price　of　wood；　if　that　of　coals　is　such

that　the　expense　of　a　coal　fire　is　nearly　equal　to　that　of　a　wood

one；　we　may　be　assured　that　at　that　place；　and　in　these

circumstances；　the　price　of　coals　is　as　high　as　it　can　be。　It

seems　to　be　so　in　some　of　the　inland　parts　of　England；

particularly　in　Oxfordshire；　where　it　is　usual；　even　in　the　fires

of　the　common　people；　to　mix　coals　and　wood　together；　and　where

the　difference　in　the　expense　of　those　two　sorts　of　fuel　cannot；

therefore；　be　very　great。

　　　　　Coals；　in　the　coal　countries；　are　everywhere　much　below　this

highest　price。　If　they　were　not；　they　could　not　bear　the　expense

of　a　distant　carriage；　either　by　land　or　by　water。　A　small

quantity　only　could　be　sold；　and　the　coal　masters　and　coal

proprietors　find　it　more　for　their　interest　to　sell　a　great

quantity　at　a　price　somewhat　above　the　lowest；　than　a　small

quantity　at　the　highest。　The　most　fertile　coal…mine；　too；

regulates　the　price　of　coals　at　all　the　other　mines　in　its

neighbourhood。　Both　the　proprietor　and　the　undertaker　of　the　work

find；　the　one　that　he　can　get　a　greater　rent；　the　other　that　he

can　get　a　greater　profit；　by　somewhat　underselling　all　their

neighbours。　Their　neighbours　are　soon　obliged　to　sell　at　the　same

price；　though　they　cannot　so　well　afford　it；　and　though　it　always

diminishes；　and　sometimes　takes　away　altogether　both　their　rent

and　their　profit。　Some　works　are　abandoned　altogether；　others　can

afford　no　rent；　and　can　be　wrought　only　by　the　proprietor。

　　　　　The　lowest　price　at　which　coals　can　be　sold　for　any

considerable　time　is；　like　that　of　all　other　commodities；　the

price　which　is　barely　sufficient　to　replace；　together　with　its

ordinary　profits；　the　stock　which　must　be　employed　in　bringing

them　to　market。　At　as　coal…mine　for　which　the　landlord　can　get　no

rent；　but　which　he　must　either　work　himself　or　let　it　alone

altogether；　the　price　of　coals　must　generally　be　nearly　about

this　price。

　　　　　Rent；　even　where　coals　afford　one；　has　generally　a　smaller

share　in　their　prices　than　in　that　of　most　other　parts　of　the

rude　produce　of　land。　The　rent　of　an　estate　above　ground　commonly

amounts　to　what　is　supposed　to　be　a　third　of　the　gross　produce；

and　it　is　generally　a　rent　certain　and　independent　of　the

occasional　variations　in　the　crop。　In　coal…mines　a　fifth　of　the

gross　produce　is　a　very　great　rent；　a　tenth　the　common　rent；　and

it　is　seldom　a　rent　certain；　but　depends　upon　the　occasional

variations　in　the　produce。　These　are　so　great　that；　in　a　country

where　thirty　years'　purchase　is　considered　as　a　moderate　price

for　the　property　of　a　landed　estate；　ten　years'　purchase　is

regarded　as　a　good　price　for　that　of　a　coal…mine。

　　　　　The　value　of　a　coal…mine　to　the　proprietor　frequently

depends　as　much　upon　its　situation　as　upon　its　fertility。　That　of

a　metallic　mine　depends　more　upon　its　fertility；　and　less　upon

its　situation。　The　coarse；　and　still　more　the　precious　metals；

when　separated　from　the　ore；　are　so　valuable　that　they　can

generally　bear　the　expense　of　a　very　long　land；　and　of　the　most

distant　sea　carriage。　Their　market　is　not　confined　to　the

countries　in　the　neighbourhood　of　the　mine；　but　extends　to　the

whole　world。　The　copper　of　Japan　makes　an　article　of　commerce　in

Europe；　the　iron　of　Spain　in　that　of　Chili　and　Peru。　The　silver

of　Peru　finds　its　way；　not　only　to　Europe；　but　from　Europe　to

China。

　　　　　The　price　of　coals　in　Westmoreland　or　Shropshire　can　have

little　effect　on　their　price　at　Newcastle；　and　their　price　in　the

Lionnois　can　have　none　at　all。　The　productions　of　such　distant

coal…mines　can　never　be　brought　into　competition　with　one

another。　But　the　productions　of　the　most　distant　metallic　mines

frequently　may；　and　in　fact　commonly　are。　The　price；　therefore；

of　the　coarse；　and　still　more　that　of　the　precious　metals；　at　the

most　fertile　mines　in　the　world；　must　necessarily　more　or　less

affect　their　price　at　every　other　in　it。　The　price　of　copper　in

Japan　must　have　some　influence　upon　its　price　at　the　copper　mines

in　Europe。　The　price　of　silver　in　Peru；　or　the　quantity　either　of

labour　or　of　other　goods　which　it　will　purchase　there；　must　have

some　influence　on　its　price；　not　only　at　the　silver　mines　of

Europe；　but　at　those　of　China。　After　the　discovery　of　the　mines

of　Peru；　the　silver　mines　of　Europe　were；　the　greater　part　of

them；　abandoned。　The　value　of　was　so　much　reduced　that　their

produce　could　no　longer　pay　the　expense　of　working　them；　or

replace；　with　a　profit；　the　food；　clothes；　lodging；　and　other

necessaries　which　were　consumed　in　that　operation。　This　was　the

case；　too；　with　the　mines　of　Cuba　and　St。　Domingo；　and　even　with

the　ancient　mines　of　Peru；　after　the　discovery　of　those　of

Potosi。

　　　　　The　price　of　every