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Leith；　frequently　carries　and　brings　back　two　hundred　ton　weight

of　goods。　Six　or　eight　men；　therefore；　by　the　help　of

water…carriage；　can　carry　and　bring　back　in　the　same　time　the

same　quantity　of　goods　between　London　and　Edinburgh；　as　fifty

broad…wheeled　waggons；　attended　by　a　hundred　men；　and　drawn　by

four　hundred　horses。　Upon　two　hundred　tons　of　goods；　therefore；

carried　by　the　cheapest　land…carriage　from　London　to　Edinburgh；

there　must　be　charged　the　maintenance　of　a　hundred　men　for　three

weeks；　and　both　the　maintenance；　and；　what　is　nearly　equal　to　the

maintenance；　the　wear　and　tear　of　four　hundred　horses　as　well　as

of　fifty　great　waggons。　Whereas；　upon　the　same　quantity　of　goods

carried　by　water；　there　is　to　be　charged　only　the　maintenance　of

six　or　eight　men；　and　the　wear　and　tear　of　a　ship　of　two　hundred

tons　burden；　together　with　the　value　of　the　superior　risk；　or　the

difference　of　the　insurance　between　land　and　water…carriage。　Were

there　no　other　communication　between　those　two　places；　therefore；

but　by　land…carriage；　as　no　goods　could　be　transported　from　the

one　to　the　other；　except　such　whose　price　was　very　considerable

in　proportion　to　their　weight；　they　could　carry　on　but　a　small

part　of　that　commerce　which　at　present　subsists　between　them；　and

consequently　could　give　but　a　small　part　of　that　encouragement

which　they　at　present　mutually　afford　to　each　other's　industry。

There　could　be　little　or　no　commerce　of　any　kind　between　the

distant　parts　of　the　world。　What　goods　could　bear　the　expense　of

land…carriage　between　London　and　Calcutta？　Or　if　there　were　any

so　precious　as　to　be　able　to　support　this　expense；　with　what

safety　could　they　be　transported　through　the　territories　of　so

many　barbarous　nations？　Those　two　cities；　however；　at　present

carry　on　a　very　considerable　commerce　with　each　other；　and　by

mutually　affording　a　market；　give　a　good　deal　of　encouragement　to

each　other's　industry。

　　　　　Since　such；　therefore；　are　the　advantages　of　water…carriage；

it　is　natural　that　the　first　improvements　of　art　and　industry

should　be　made　where　this　conveniency　opens　the　whole　world　for　a

market　to　the　produce　of　every　sort　of　labour；　and　that　they

should　always　be　much　later　in　extending　themselves　into　the

inland　parts　of　the　country。　The　inland　parts　of　the　country　can

for　a　long　time　have　no　other　market　for　the　greater　part　of

their　goods；　but　the　country　which　lies　round　about　them；　and

separates　them　from　the　sea…coast；　and　the　great　navigable

rivers。　The　extent　of　their　market；　therefore；　must　for　a　long

time　be　in　proportion　to　the　riches　and　populousness　of　that

country；　and　consequently　their　improvement　must　always　be

posterior　to　the　improvement　of　that　country。　In　our　North

American　colonies　the　plantations　have　constantly　followed　either

the　sea…coast　or　the　banks　of　the　navigable　rivers；　and　have

scarce　anywhere　extended　themselves　to　any　considerable　distance

from　both。

　　　　　The　nations　that；　according　to　the　best　authenticated

history；　appear　to　have　been　first　civilised；　were　those　that

dwelt　round　the　coast　of　the　Mediterranean　Sea。　That　sea；　by　far

the　greatest　inlet　that　is　known　in　the　world；　having　no　tides；

nor　consequently　any　waves　except　such　as　are　caused　by　the　wind

only；　was；　by　the　smoothness　of　its　surface；　as　well　as　by　the

multitude　of　its　islands；　and　the　proximity　of　its　neighbouring

shores；　extremely　favourable　to　the　infant　navigation　of　the

world；　when；　from　their　ignorance　of　the　compass；　men　were　afraid

to　quit　the　view　of　the　coast；　and　from　the　imperfection　of　the

art　of　shipbuilding；　to　abandon　themselves　to　the　boisterous

waves　of　the　ocean。　To　pass　beyond　the　pillars　of　Hercules；　that

is；　to　sail　out　of　the　Straits　of　Gibraltar；　was；　in　the　ancient

world；　long　considered　as　a　most　wonderful　and　dangerous　exploit

of　navigation。　It　was　late　before　even　the　Phoenicians　and

Carthaginians；　the　most　skilful　navigators　and　ship…builders　of

those　old　times；　attempted　it；　and　they　were　for　a　long　time　the

only　nations　that　did　attempt　it。

　　　　　Of　all　the　countries　on　the　coast　of　the　Mediterranean　Sea；

Egypt　seems　to　have　been　the　first　in　which　either　agriculture　or

manufactures　were　cultivated　and　improved　to　any　considerable

degree。　Upper　Egypt　extends　itself　nowhere　above　a　few　miles　from

the　Nile；　and　in　Lower　Egypt　that　great　river　breaks　itself　into

many　different　canals；　which；　with　the　assistance　of　a　little

art；　seem　to　have　afforded　a　communication　by　water…carriage；　not

only　between　all　the　great　towns；　but　between　all　the

considerable　villages；　and　even　to　many　farmhouses　in　the

country；　nearly　in　the　same　manner　as　the　Rhine　and　the　Maas　do

in　Holland　at　present。　The　extent　and　easiness　of　this　inland

navigation　was　probably　one　of　the　principal　causes　of　the　early

improvement　of　Egypt。

　　　　　The　improvements　in　agriculture　and　manufactures　seem

likewise　to　have　been　of　very　great　antiquity　in　the　provinces　of

Bengal；　in　the　East　Indies；　and　in　some　of　the　eastern　provinces

of　China；　though　the　great　extent　of　this　antiquity　is　not

authenticated　by　any　histories　of　whose　authority　we；　in　this

part　of　the　world；　are　well　assured。　In　Bengal　the　Ganges　and

several　other　great　rivers　form　a　great　number　of　navigable

canals　in　the　same　manner　as　the　Nile　does　in　Egypt。　In　the

Eastern　provinces　of　China　too；　several　great　rivers　form；　by

their　different　branches；　a　multitude　of　canals；　and　by

communicating　with　one　another　afford　an　inland　navigation　much

more　extensive　than　that　either　of　the　Nile　or　the　Ganges；　or

perhaps　than　both　of　them　put　together。　It　is　remarkable　that

neither　the　ancient　Egyptians；　nor　the　Indians；　nor　the　Chinese；

encouraged　foreign　commerce；　but　seem　all　to　have　derived　their

great　opulence　from　this　inland　navigation。

　　　　　All　the　inland　parts　of　Africa；　and　all　that　part　of　Asia

which　lies　any　considerable　way　north　of　the　Euxine　and　Caspian

seas；　the　ancient　Scythia；　the　modern　Tartary　and　Siberia；　seem

in　all　ages　of　the　world　to　have　been　in　the　same　barbarous　and

uncivilised　state　in　which　we　find　them　at　present。　The　Sea　of

Tartary　is　the　frozen　ocean　which　admits　of　no　navigation；　and

though　some　of　the　greatest　rivers　in　the　world　run　through　that

country；　they　are　at　too　great　a　distance　from　one　another　to

carry　commerce　and　communication　through　the　greater　part　of　it。

There　are　in　Africa　none　of　those　great　inlets；　such　as　the

Baltic　and　Adriatic　seas　in　Europe；　the　Mediterranean　and　Euxine

seas　in　both　Europe　and　Asia；　and　the　gulfs　of　Arabia；　Persia；

India；　Bengal；　and　Siam；　in　Asia；　to　carry　maritime　commerce　into

the　interior　parts　of　that　great　continent：　and　the　great　rivers

of　Africa　are　at　too　great　a　distance　from　one　another　to　give

occasion　to　any　considerable　inland　navigation。　The　commerce

besides　which　any　nation　can　carry　on　by　means　of　a　river　which

does　not　break　itself　into　any　great　number　of　branches　or

canals；　and　which　runs　into　another　territory　before　it　reaches

the　sea；　can　never　be　very　considerable；　because　it　is　always　in

the　power　of　the　nations　who　possess　that　other　territory　to

obstruct　the　communication　between　the　upper　country　and　the　sea。

The　navigation　of　the　Danube　is　of　very　little　use　to　the

different　states　of　Bavaria；　Austria　and　Hungary；　in　comparison

of　what　it　would　be　if　any　of　them　possessed　the　whole　of　its

course　till　it　falls　into　the　Black　Sea。　　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　IV



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Origin　and　Use　of　Money　



　　　　　WHEN　the　division　of　labour　has　been　once　thoroughly

established；　it　is　but　a　very　small　part　of　a　man's　wants　which

the　produce　of　his　own　labour　can　supply。　He　supplies　the　far

greater　part　of　them　by　exchanging　that　surplus　part　of　the

produce　of　his　own　labour；　which　is　over　and　above　his　own

consumption；　for　such　parts　of　the　produce　of　other　men's　labour

as　he　has　occasion　for。　Every　man　thus　lives　by　exchanging；　or

becomes　in　some　measure　a　merchant；　and　the　society　itself　grows

to　be　what　is　properly　a　commercial　society。

　　　　　But　when　the　division　of　labour　first　began　to　take　place；

this　power　of　exchanging　must　frequently　have　been　very　much

clogged　and　embarrassed　in　its　operations。　One　man；　we　shall

suppose；　has　more　of　a　certain　commodity　than　he　himself　has

occasion　for；　while　another　has　less。　The　former　consequently

would　be　glad　to　dispose　of；　and　the　latter　to　purchase；　a　part

of　this　superfluity。　But　if　this　latter　should　chance　to　have

nothing　that　the　former　stands　in　need　of；　no　exchange　can　be

made　between　them。　The　butcher　has　more　meat　in　his　shop　than　he

himself　can　consume；　and　the　brewer　and　the　baker　would　each　of

them　be　willing　to　purchase　a　part　of　it。　But　they　have　nothing

to　offer　in　exchange；　except　the　different　productions　of　their

respective　trades；　and　the　butcher　is　already　provided　with　all

the　bread　and　beer　which　he　has　immediate　occasion　for。　No

exchange　can；　in　this　case；　be　made　between　them。　He　cannot　be

their　merchant；　nor　they　his　customers；　and　they　are　all　of　them

thus　mutually　less　serviceable　to　one　another。　In　order　to　avoid

the　inconveniency　of　such　situations；　every　prudent　man　in　every

period　of　society；　after　the　first　establishment　of　the　division

of　labour；　must　naturally　have　endeavoured　to　manage　his　affairs

in　such　a　manner　as　to　have　at　alltimes　by　him；　besides　the

peculiar　produce　of　his　own　industry；　a　certain　quantity　of　some

one　commodity　or　other；　such　as　he　imagined　few　people　would　be

likely　to　refuse　in　exchange　for　the　produce　of　their　industry。

　　　　　Many　different　commodities；　it　is　probable；　were

successively　both　thought　of　and　employed　for　this　purpose。　In

the　rude　ages　of　society；　cattle　are　said　to　have　been　the　common

instrument　of　commerce；　and；　though　they　must　have　been　a　most

inconvenient　one；　yet　in　old