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shillings　the　quarter　was；　before　the　late　years　of　scarcity；　the

ordinary　contract　price　of　English　wheat；　which　in　quality　is

inferior　to　the　Sicilian；　and　generally　sells　for　a　lower　price

in　the　European　market。　The　value　of　silver；　therefore；　in　those

ancient　times；　must　have　been　to　its　value　in　the　present　as

three　to　four　inversely；　that　is；　three　ounces　of　silver　would

then　have　purchased　the　same　quantity　of　labour　and　commodities

which　four　ounces　will　do　at　present。　When　we　read　in　Pliny；

therefore；　that　Seius　bought　a　white　nightingale；　as　a　present

for　the　Empress　Agrippina；　at　a　price　of　six　thousand　sestertii；

equal　to　about　fifty　pounds　of　our　present　money；　and　that

Asinius　Celer　purchased　a　surmullet　at　the　price　of　eight

thousand　sestertii；　equal　to　about　sixty…six　pounds　thirteen

shillings　and　fourpence　of　our　present　money；　the　extravagance　of

those　prices；　how　much　soever　it　may　surprise　us；　is　apt；

notwithstanding；　to　appear　to　us　about　one…third　less　than　it

really　was。　Their　real　price；　the　quantity　of　labour　and

subsistence　which　was　given　away　for　them；　was　about　one…third

more　than　their　nominal　price　is　apt　to　express　to　us　in　the

present　times。　Seius　gave　for　the　nightingale　the　command　of　a

quantity　of　labour　and　subsistence　equal　to　what　L66　13s。　4d。

would　purchase　in　the　present　times；　and　Asinius　Celer　gave　for

the　surmullet　the　command　of　a　quantity　equal　to　what　L88　9　1/2d。

would　purchase。　What　occasioned　the　extravagance　of　those　high

prices　was；　not　so　much　the　abundance　of　silver　as　the　abundance

of　labour　and　subsistence　of　which　those　Romans　had　the　disposal

beyond　what　was　necessary　for　their　own　use。　The　quantity　of

silver　of　which　they　had　the　disposal　was　a　good　deal　less　than

what　the　command　of　the　same　quantity　of　labour　and　subsistence

would　have　procured　to　them　in　the　present　times。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　SECOND　SORT　

　　　　　The　second　sort　of　rude　procedure　of　which　the　price　rises

in　the　progress　of　improvement　is　that　which　human　industry　can

multiply　in　proportion　to　the　demand。　It　consists　in　those　useful

plants　and　animals　which；　in　uncultivated　countries；　nature

produces　with　such　profuse　abundance　that　they　are　of　little　or

no　value；　and　which；　as　cultivation　advances　are　therefore　forced

to　give　place　to　some　more　profitable　produce。　During　a　long

period　in　the　progress　of　improvement；　the　quantity　of　these　is

continually　diminishing；　while　at　the　same　time　the　demand　for

them　is　continually　increasing。　Their　real　value；　therefore；　the

real　quantity　of　labour　which　they　will　purchase　or　command；

gradually　rises；　till　at　last　it　gets　so　high　as　to　render　them

as　profitable　a　produce　as　anything　else　which　human　industry　can

raise　upon　the　most　fertile　and　best　cultivated　land。　When　it　has

got　so　high　it　cannot　well　go　higher。　If　it　did；　more　land　and

more　industry　would　soon　be　employed　to　increase　their　quantity。

　　　　　When　the　price　of　cattle；　for　example；　rises　so　high　that　it

is　as　profitable　to　cultivate　land　in　order　to　raise　food　for

them　as　in　order　to　raise　food　for　man；　it　cannot　well　go　higher。

If　it　did；　more　corn　land　would　soon　be　turned　into　pasture。　The

extension　of　tillage；　by　diminishing　the　quantity　of　wild

pasture；　diminishes　the　quantity　of　butcher's　meat　which　the

country　naturally　produces　without　labour　or　cultivation；　and　by

increasing　the　number　of　those　who　have　either　corn；　or；　what

comes　to　the　same　thing；　the　price　of　corn；　to　give　in　exchange

for　it；　increases　the　demand。　The　price　of　butcher's　meat；

therefore；　and　consequently　of　cattle；　must　gradually　rise　till

it　gets　so　high　that　it　becomes　as　profitable　to　employ　the　most

fertile　and　best　cultivated　lands　in　raising　food　for　them　as　in

raising　corn。　But　it　must　always　be　late　in　the　progress　of

improvement　before　tillage　can　be　so　far　extended　as　to　raise　the

price　of　cattle　to　this　height；　and　till　it　has　got　to　this

height；　if　the　country　is　advancing　at　all；　their　price　must　be

continually　rising。　There　are；　perhaps；　some　parts　of　Europe　in

which　the　price　of　cattle　has　not　yet　got　to　this　height。　It　had

not　got　to　this　height　in　any　part　of　Scotland　before　the　union。

Had　the　Scotch　cattle　been　always　confined　to　the　market　of

Scotland；　in　a　country　in　which　the　quantity　of　land　which　can　be

applied　to　no　other　purpose　but　the　feeding　of　cattle　is　so　great

in　proportion　to　what　can　be　applied　to　other　purposes；　it　is

scarce　possible；　perhaps；　that　their　price　could　ever　have　risen

so　high　as　to　render　it　profitable　to　cultivate　land　for　the　sake

of　feeding　them。　In　England；　the　price　of　cattle；　it　has　already

been　observed；　seems；　in　the　neighbourhood　of　London；　to　have　got

to　this　height　about　the　beginning　of　the　last　century；　but　it

was　much　later　probably　before　it　got　to　it　through　the　greater

part　of　the　remoter　counties；　in　some　of　which；　perhaps；　it　may

scarce　yet　have　got　to　it。　Of　all　the　different　substances；

however；　which　compose　this　second　sort　of　rude　produce；　cattle

is；　perhaps；　that　of　which　the　price；　in　the　progress　of

improvement；　first　rises　to　this　height。

　　　　　Till　the　price　of　cattle；　indeed；　has　got　to　this　height；　it

seems　scarce　possible　that　the　greater　part；　even　of　those　lands

which　are　capable　of　the　highest　cultivation；　can　be　completely

cultivated。　In　all　farms　too　distant　from　any　town　to　carry

manure　from　it；　that　is；　in　the　far　greater　part　of　those　of

every　extensive　country；　the　quantity　of　well…cultivated　land

must　be　in　proportion　to　the　quantity　of　manure　which　the　farm

itself　produces；　and　this　again　must　be　in　proportion　to　the

stock　of　cattle　which　are　maintained　upon　it。　The　land　is　manured

either　by　pasturing　the　cattle　upon　it；　or　by　feeding　them　in　the

stable；　and　from　thence　carrying　out　their　dung　to　it。　But　unless

the　price　of　the　cattle　be　sufficient　to　pay　both　the　rent　and

profit　of　cultivated　land；　the　farmer　cannot　afford　to　pasture

them　upon　it；　and　he　can　still　less　afford　to　feed　them　in　the

stable。　It　is　with　the　produce　of　improved　and　cultivated　land

only　that　cattle　can　be　fed　in　the　stable；　because　to　collect　the

scanty　and　scattered　produce　of　waste　and　unimproved　lands　would

require　too　much　labour　and　be　too　expensive。　If　the　price　of

cattle；　therefore；　is　not　sufficient　to　pay　for　the　produce　of

improved　and　cultivated　land；　when　they　are　allowed　to　pasture

it；　that　price　will　be　still　less　sufficient　to　pay　for　that

produce　when　it　must　be　collected　with　a　good　deal　of　additional

labour；　and　brought　into　the　stable　to　them。　In　these

circumstances；　therefore；　no　more　cattle　can；　with　profit；　be　fed

in　the　stable　than　what　are　necessary　for　tillage。　But　these　can

never　afford　manure　enough　for　keeping　constantly　in　good

condition　all　the　lands　which　they　are　capable　of　cultivating。

What　they　afford　being　insufficient　for　the　whole　farm　will

naturally　be　reserved　for　the　lands　to　which　it　can　be　most

advantageously　or　conveniently　applied；　the　most　fertile；　or

those；　perhaps；　in　the　neighbourhood　of　the　farmyard。　These；

therefore；　will　be　kept　constantly　in　good　condition　and　fit　for

tillage。　The　rest　will；　the　greater　part　of　them；　be　allowed　to

lie　waste；　producing　scarce　anything　but　some　miserable　pasture；

just　sufficient　to　keep　alive　a　few　straggling；　half…starved

cattle；　the　farm；　though　much　understocked　in　proportion　to　what

would　be　necessary　for　its　complete　cultivation；　being　very

frequently　overstocked　in　proportion　to　its　actual　produce。　A

portion　of　this　waste　land；　however；　after　having　been　pastured

in　this　wretched　manner　for　six　or　seven　years　together；　may　be

ploughed　up；　when　it　will　yield；　perhaps；　a　poor　crop　or　two　of

bad　oats；　or　of　some　other　coarse　grain；　and　then；　being　entirely

exhausted；　it　must　be　rested　and　pastured　again　as　before　and

another　portion　ploughed　up　to　be　in　the　same　manner　exhausted

and　rested　again　in　its　turn。　Such　accordingly　was　the　general

system　of　management　all　over　the　low　country　of　Scotland　before

the　union。　The　lands　which　were　kept　constantly　well　manured　and

in　good　condition　seldom　exceeded　a　third　or　a　fourth　part　of　the

whole　farm；　and　sometimes　did　not　amount　to　a　fifth　or　a　sixth

part　of　it。　The　rest　were　never　manured；　but　a　certain　portion　of

them　was　in　its　turn；　notwithstanding；　regularly　cultivated　and

exhausted。　Under　this　system　of　management；　it　is　evident；　even

that　part　of　the　land　of　Scotland　which　is　capable　of　good

cultivation　could　produce　but　little　in　comparison　of　what　it　may

be　capable　of　producing。　But　how　disadvantageous　soever　this

system　may　appear；　yet　before　the　union　the　low　price　of　cattle

seems　to　have　rendered　it　almost　unavoidable。　If；　notwithstanding

a　great　rise　in　their　price；　it　still　continues　to　prevail

through　a　considerable　part　of　the　country；　it　is　owing；　in　many

places；　no　doubt；　to　ignorance　and　attachment　to　old　customs；　but

in　most　places　to　the　unavoidable　obstructions　which　the　natural

course　of　things　opposes　to　the　immediate　or　speedy　establishment

of　a　better　system：　first；　to　the　poverty　of　the　tenants；　to

their　not　having　yet　had　time　to　acquire　a　stock　of　cattle

sufficient　to　cultivate　their　lands　more　completely；　the　same

rise　of　price　which　would　render　it　advantageous　for　them　to

maintain　a　greater　stock　rendering　it　more　difficult　for　them　to

acquire　it；　and；　secondly；　to　their　not　having　yet　had　time　to

put　their　lands　in　condition　to　maintain　this　greater　stock

properly；　supposing　they　were　capable　of　acquiring　it。　The

increase　of　stock　and　the　improvement　of　land　are　two　events

which　must　go　hand　in　hand；　and　of　which　the　one　can　nowhere　much

outrun　the　other。　Without　some　increase　of　stock　there　can　be

scarce　any　improvement　of　land；　but　there　can　be　no　considerable

increase　of　stock　but　in　consequence　of　a　considerable

improvement　of　land；　be