the armies of labor-第5部分
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imilar unions presently sprang up in other cities； including Baltimore； Albany； Troy； Washington； Newark； Schenectady； New Brunswick； Pittsburgh； Cincinnati； and St。 Louis。 By 1835 all the larger centers of industry were familiar with the idea； and most of them with the practice； of the trades organizations of a community uniting for action。
The local unions were not unmindful of the need for wider action； either through a national union of all the organizations of a single trade； or through a union of all the different trades' unions。 Both courses of action were attempted。 In 1834 the National Trades' Union came into being and from that date held annual national conventions of all the trades until the panic of 1837 obliterated the movement。 When the first convention was called； it was estimated that there were some 26；250 members of trades' unions then in the United States。 Of these 11；500 were in New York and its vicinity； 6000 in Philadelphia； 4000 in Boston； and 3500 in Baltimore。 Meanwhile a movement was under way to federate the unions of a single trade。 In 1835 the cordwainers attending the National Trades Union' formed a preliminary organization and called a national cordwainers' convention。 This met in New York in March； 1836； and included forty…five delegates from New York； New Jersey； Delaware； and Connecticut。 In the fall of 1836 the comb…makers； the carpenters； the hand…loom weavers； and the printers likewise organized separate national unions or alliances； and several other trades made tentative efforts by correspondence to organize themselves in the same manner。
Before the dire year of 1837； there are； then； to be found the beginnings of most of the elements of modern labor organizations benevolent societies and militant orders； political activities and trades activities； amalgamations of local societies of the same trades and of all trades； attempts at national organization on the part of both the local trades' unions and of the local trade unions； a labor press to keep alive the interest of the workman； mass meetings； circulars； conventions； and appeals to arouse the interest of the public in the issues of the hour。 The persistent demand of the workingmen was for a ten…hour day。 Harriet Martineau； who traveled extensively through the United States； remarked that all the strikes she heard of were on the question of hours； not wages。 But there were nevertheless abundant strikes either to raise wages or to maintain them。 There were； also； other fundamental questions in controversy which could not be settled by strikes； such as imprisonment for debt； lien and exemption and homestead laws； convict labor and slave labor； and universal education。 Most of these issues have since that time been decided in favor of labor； and a new series of demands takes their place today。 Yet as one reads the records of the early conspiracy cases or thumbs through the files of old periodicals； he learns that there is indeed nothing new under the sun and that； while perhaps the particular issues have changed； the general methods and the spirit of the contest remain the same。
The laborer believed then； as he does now； that his organization must be all…embracing。 In those days also there were 〃scabs；〃 often called 〃rats〃 or 〃dung。〃 Places under ban were systematically picketed； and warnings like the following were sent out： 〃We would caution all strangers and others who profess the art of horseshoeing； that if they go to work for any employer under the above prices； they must abide by the consequences。〃 Usually the consequences were a fine imposed by the union； but sometimes they were more severe。 Coercion by the union did not cease with the strike。 Journeymen who were not members were pursued with assiduity and energy as soon as they entered a town and found work。 The boycott was a method early used against prison labor。 New York stonecutters agreed that they would not 〃either collectively or individually purchase any goods manufactured〃 by convicts and that they would not 〃countenance〃 any merchants who dealt in them； and employers who incurred the displeasure of organized labor were 〃nullified。〃
The use of the militia during strikes presented the same difficulties then as now。 During the general strike in Philadelphia in 1835 there was considerable rowdyism； and Michel Chevalier； a keen observer of American life； wrote that 〃the militia looks on； the sheriff stands with folded hands。〃 Nor was there any difference in the attitude of the laboring man towards unfavorable court decisions。 In the tailors' strike in New York in 1836； for instance； twenty…seven thousand sympathizers assembled with bands and banners to protest against the jury's verdict； and after sentence had been imposed upon the defendants； the lusty throng burned the judge in effigy。
Sabotage is a new word； but the practice itself is old。 In 1835 the striking cabinet…makers in New York smashed thousands of dollars' worth of chairs； tables； and sofas that had been imported from France； and the newspapers observed the significant fact that the destroyers boasted in a foreign language that only American…made furniture should be sold in America。 Houses were burned in Philadelphia because the contractors erecting them refused to grant the wages that were demanded。 Vengeance was sometimes sought against new machinery that displaced hand labor。 In June； 1835； a New York paper remarked that 〃it is well known that many of the most obstinate turn…outs among workingmen and many of the most violent and lawless proceedings have been excited for the purpose of destroying newly invented machinery。〃 Such acts of wantonness； however； were few； even in those first tumultuous days of the thirties。 Striking became in those days a sort of mania； and not a town that had a mill or shop was exempt。 Men struck for 〃grog or death；〃 for 〃Liberty； Equality； and the Rights of Man；〃 and even for the right to smoke their pipes at work。
Strike benefits； too； were known in this early period。 Strikers in New York received assistance from Philadelphia； and Boston strikers were similarly aided by both New York and Philadelphia。 When the high cost of living threatened to deprive the wage…earner of half his income； bread riots occurred in the cities； and handbills circulated in New York bore the legend：
BREAD； MEAT； RENT； FUEL THEIR PRICES MUST COME DOWN
CHAPTER III。 TRANSITION YEARS
With the panic of 1837 the mills were closed； thousands of unemployed workers were thrown upon private charity； and； in the long years of depression which followed； trade unionism suffered a temporary eclipse。 It was a period of social unrest in which all sorts of philanthropic reforms were suggested and tried out。 Measured by later events； it was a period of transition； of social awakening； of aspiration tempered by the bitter experience of failure。
In the previous decade Robert Owen； the distinguished English social reformer and philanthropist； had visited America； and had begun in 1826 his famous colony at New Harmony； Indiana。 His experiments at New Lanark； in England； had already made him known to working people the world over。 Whatever may be said of his quaint attempts to reduce society to a common denominator； it is certain that his arrival in America； at a time when people's minds were open to all sorts of economic suggestions； had a stimulating effect upon labor reforms and led； in the course of time； to the founding of some forty communistic colonies； most of them in New York； Pennsylvania； and Ohio。 〃We are all a little wild here with numberless projects of social reform；〃 wrote Emerson to Thomas Carlyle； 〃not a reading man but has the draft of a new community in his waistcoat pocket。〃 One of these experiments； at Red Bank； New Jersey； lasted for thirteen years； and another； in Wisconsin； for six years。 But most of them after a year or two gave up the struggle。
Of these failures； the best known is Brook Farm； an intellectual community founded in 1841 by George Ripley at West Roxbury； Massachusetts。 Six years later the project was abandoned and is now remembered as an example of the futility of trying to leaven a world of realism by means of an atom of transcendental idealism。 In a sense； however； Brook Farm typifies this period of transition。 It was a time of vagaries and longings。 People seemed to be conscious of the fact that a new social solidarity was dawning。 It is not strange； therefore； thatwhile the railroads were feeling their way from town to town and across the prairies； while water…power and steam…power were multiplying man's productivity； indicating that the old days were gone forever many curious dreams of a new order of things should be dreamed； nor that among them some should be ridiculous； some fantastic； and some unworthy； nor that； as the futility of a universal social reform forced itself upon the dreamers； they merged the greater in the lesser； the general in the particular； and sought an outlet in espousing some specific cause or attacking some particular evil。
Those movements which had their inspiration in a genuine humanitarianism achieved great good。 Now for the first time the blind； the deaf； the dumb； and the insane were made the object of social solicitude and communal care。 The criminal； too； and the jail in which he was confined remained no longer utterly neglected。 Men of the debtor class were freed from that medieval barbarism which gave the creditor the right to levy on the person of his debtor。 Even the public schools were dragged out of their lethargy。 When Horace Mann was appointed secretary of the newly created Massachusetts Board of Education in 1837； a new day dawned for American public schools。
While these and other substantial improvements were under way； the charlatan and the faddist were not without their opportunities or their votaries。 Spirit rappings beguiled or awed the villagers； thousands of religious zealots in 1844 abandoned their vocations and； drawing on white robes； awaited expectantly the second coming of Christ； every cult from free love to celibate austerity found zealous followers； the 〃new woman〃 declared her independence in short hair and bloomers； people sought social salvation in new health codes； in vegetarian boarding…houses； and
