representative government-第42部分

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


ard；　deliberating　with　closed　doors；　nobody　knowing；　or；　except　in　some　extreme　case；　being　ever　likely　to　know；　whether　an　individual　member　voted　for　the　act　or　against　it。　Responsibility　in　this　case　is　a　mere　name。　〃Boards；〃　it　is　happily　said　by　Bentham；　〃are　screens。〃　What　〃the　Board〃　does　is　the　act　of　nobody；　and　nobody　can　be　made　to　answer　for　it。　The　Board　suffers；　even　in　reputation；　only　in　its　collective　character；　and　no　individual　member　feels　this　further　than　his　disposition　leads　him　to　identify　his　own　estimation　with　that　of　the　body…　a　feeling　often　very　strong　when　the　body　is　a　permanent　one；　and　he　is　wedded　to　it　for　better　for　worse；　but　the　fluctuations　of　a　modern　official　career　give　no　time　for　the　formation　of　such　an　esprit　de　corps；　which　if　it　exists　at　all；　exists　only　in　the　obscure　ranks　of　the　permanent　subordinates。　Boards；　therefore；　are　not　a　fit　instrument　for　executive　business；　and　are　only　admissible　in　it　when；　for　other　reasons；　to　give　full　discretionary　power　to　a　single　minister　would　be　worse。　　　On　the　other　hand；　it　is　also　a　maxim　of　experience　that　in　the　multitude　of　counsellors　there　is　wisdom；　and　that　a　man　seldom　judges　right；　even　in　his　own　concerns；　still　less　in　those　of　the　public；　when　he　makes　habitual　use　of　no　knowledge　but　his　own；　or　that　of　some　single　adviser。　There　is　no　necessary　incompatibility　between　this　principle　and　the　other。　It　is　easy　to　give　the　effective　power；　and　the　full　responsibility；　to　one；　providing　him　when　necessary　with　advisers；　each　of　whom　is　responsible　only　for　the　opinion　he　gives。　　　In　general；　the　head　of　a　department　of　the　executive　government　is　a　mere　politician。　He　may　be　a　good　politician；　and　a　man　of　merit；　and　unless　this　is　usually　the　case；　the　government　is　bad。　But　his　general　capacity；　and　the　knowledge　he　ought　to　possess　of　the　general　interests　of　the　country；　will　not；　unless　by　occasional　accident；　be　accompanied　by　adequate；　and　what　may　be　called　professional；　knowledge　of　the　department　over　which　he　is　called　to　preside。　Professional　advisers　must　therefore　be　provided　for　him。　Wherever　mere　experience　and　attainments　are　sufficient　wherever　the　qualities　required　in　a　professional　adviser　may　possibly　be　united　in　a　single　well…selected　individual　（as　in　the　case；　for　example；　of　a　law　officer）；　one　such　person　for　general　purposes；　and　a　staff　of　clerks　to　supply　knowledge　of　details；　meet　the　demands　of　the　case。　But；　more　frequently；　it　is　not　sufficient　that　the　minister　should　consult　some　one　competent　person；　and；　when　himself　not　conversant　with　the　subject；　act　implicitly　on　that　person's　advice。　It　is　often　necessary　that　he　should；　not　only　occasionally　but　habitually；　listen　to　a　variety　of　opinions；　and　inform　his　judgment　by　the　discussions　among　a　body　of　advisers。　This；　for　example；　is　emphatically　necessary　in　military　and　naval　affairs。　The　military　and　naval　ministers；　therefore；　and　probably　several　others；　should　be　provided　with　a　Council；　composed；　at　least　in　those　two　departments；　of　able　and　experienced　professional　men。　As　a　means　of　obtaining　the　best　men　for　the　purpose　under　every　change　of　administration；　they　ought　to　be　permanent：　by　which　I　mean；　that　they　ought　not；　like　the　Lords　of　the　Admiralty；　to　be　expected　to　resign　with　the　ministry　by　whom　they　were　appointed：　but　it　is　a　good　rule　that　all　who　hold　high　appointments　to　which　they　have　risen　by　selection；　and　not　by　the　ordinary　course　of　promotion；　should　retain　their　office　only　for　a　fixed　term；　unless　reappointed；　as　is　now　the　rule　with　Staff　appointments　in　the　British　army。　This　rule　renders　appointments　somewhat　less　likely　to　be　jobbed；　not　being　a　provision　for　life；　and　the　same　time　affords　a　means；　without　affront　to　any　one；　of　getting　rid　of　those　who　are　least　worth　keeping；　and　bringing　in　highly　qualified　persons　of　younger　standing；　for　whom　there　might　never　be　room　if　death　vacancies；　or　voluntary　resignations；　were　waited　for。　　　The　Councils　should　be　consultative　merely；　in　this　sense；　that　the　ultimate　decision　should　rest　undividedly　with　the　minister　himself：　but　neither　ought　they　to　be　looked　upon；　or　to　look　upon　themselves；　as　ciphers；　or　as　capable　of　being　reduced　to　such　at　his　pleasure。　The　advisers　attached　to　a　powerful　and　perhaps　self…willed　man　ought　to　be　placed　under　conditions　which　make　it　impossible　for　them；　without　discredit；　not　to　express　an　opinion；　and　impossible　for　him　not　to　listen　to　and　consider　their　recommendations；　whether　he　adopts　them　or　not。　The　relation　which　ought　to　exist　between　a　chief　and　this　description　of　advisers　is　very　accurately　hit　by　the　constitution　of　the　Council　of　the　Governor…General　and　those　of　the　different　Presidencies　in　India。　These　Councils　are　composed　of　persons　who　have　professional　knowledge　of　Indian　affairs；　which　the　Governor…General　and　Governors　usually　lack；　and　which　it　would　not　be　desirable　to　require　of　them。　As　a　rule；　every　member　of　Council　is　expected　to　give　an　opinion；　which　is　of　course　very　often　a　simple　acquiescence：　but　if　there　is　a　difference　of　sentiment；　it　is　at　the　option　of　every　member；　and　is　the　invariable　practice；　to　record　the　reasons　of　his　opinion：　the　Governor…General；　or　Governor；　doing　the　same。　In　ordinary　cases　the　decision　is　according　to　the　sense　of　the　majority；　the　Council；　therefore；　has　a　substantial　part　in　the　government：　but　if　the　Governor…General；　or　Governor；　thinks　fit；　he　may　set　aside　even　their　unanimous　opinion；　recording　his　reasons。　The　result　is；　that　the　chief　is　individually　and　effectively　responsible　for　every　act　of　the　Government。　The　members　of　Council　have　only　the　responsibility　of　advisers；　but　it　is　always　known；　from　documents　capable　of　being　produced；　and　which　if　called　for　by　Parliament　or　public　opinion　always　are　produced；　what　each　has　advised；　and　what　reasons　he　gave　for　his　advice：　while；　from　their　dignified　position；　and　ostensible　participation　in　all　acts　of　government；　they　have　nearly　as　strong　motives　to　apply　themselves　to　the　public　business；　and　to　form　and　express　a　well…considered　opinion　on　every　part　of　it；　as　if　the　whole　responsibility　rested　with　themselves。　　　This　mode　of　conducting　the　highest　class　of　administrative　business　is　one　of　the　most　successful　instances　of　the　adaptation　of　means　to　ends　which　political　history；　not　hitherto　very　prolific　in　works　of　skill　and　contrivance；　has　yet　to　show。　It　is　one　of　the　acquisitions　with　which　the　art　of　politics　has　been　enriched　by　the　experience　of　the　East　India　Company's　rule；　and；　like　most　of　the　other　wise　contrivances　by　which　India　has　been　preserved　to　this　country；　and　an　amount　of　good　government　produced　which　is　truly　wonderful　considering　the　circumstances　and　the　materials；　it　is　probably　destined　to　perish　in　the　general　holocaust　which　the　traditions　of　Indian　government　seem　fated　to　undergo；　since　they　have　been　placed　at　the　mercy　of　public　ignorance；　and　the　presumptuous　vanity　of　political　men。　Already　an　outcry　is　raised　for　abolishing　the　Councils；　as　a　superfluous　and　expensive　clog　on　the　wheels　of　government：　while　the　clamour　has　long　been　urgent；　and　is　daily　obtaining　more　countenance　in　the　highest　quarters；　for　the　abrogation　of　the　professional　civil　service　which　breeds　the　men　that　compose　the　Councils；　and　the　existence　of　which　is　the　sole　guarantee　for　their　being　of　any　value。

　　A　most　important　principle　of　good　government　in　a　popular　constitution　is　that　no　executive　functionaries　should　be　appointed　by　popular　election：　neither　by　the　votes　of　the　people　themselves；　nor　by　those　of　their　representatives。　The　entire　business　of　government　is　skilled　employment；　the　qualifications　for　the　discharge　of　it　are　of　that　special　and　professional　kind　which　cannot　be　properly　judged　of　except　by　persons　who　have　themselves　some　share　of　those　qualifications；　or　some　practical　experience　of　them。　The　business　of　finding　the　fittest　persons　to　fill　public　employments…　not　merely　selecting　the　best　who　offer；　but　looking　out　for　the　absolutely　best；　and　taking　note　of　all　fit　persons　who　are　met　with；　that　they　may　be　found　when　wanted…　is　very　laborious；　and　requires　a　delicate　as　well　as　highly　conscientious　discernment；　and　as　there　is　no　public　duty　which　is　in　general　so　badly　performed；　so　there　is　none　for　which　it　is　of　greater　importance　to　enforce　the　utmost　practicable　amount　of　personal　responsibility；　by　imposing　it　as　a　special　obligation　on　high　functionaries　in　the　several　departments。　All　subordinate　public　officers　who　are　not　appointed　by　some　mode　of　public　competition　should　be　selected　on　the　direct　responsibility　of　the　minister　under　whom　they　serve。　The　ministers；　all　but　the　chief；　will　naturally　be　selected　by　the　chief；　and　the　chief　himself；　though　really　designated　by　Parliament；　should　be；　in　a　regal　government；　officially　appointed　by　the　Crown。　The　functionary　who　appoints　should　be　the　sole　person　empowered　to　remove　any　subordinate　officer　who　is　liable　to　removal；　which　the　far　greater　number　ought　not　to　be；　except　for　personal　misconduct；　since　it　would　be　vain　to　expect　that　the　body　of　persons　by　whom　the　whole　detail　of　the　public　business　is　transacted；　and　whose　qualifications　are　generally　of　much　more　importance　to　the　public　than　those　of　the　minister　himself；　will　devote　themselves　to　their　profession；　and　acquire　the　knowledge　and　skill　on　which　the　minister　must　often　place　entire　dependence；　if　they　are　liable　at　any　moment　to　be　turned　adrift　for　no　fault；　that　the　minister　may　gratify　himself；　or　promote　his　political　interest；　by　appointing　somebody　else。　　　To　the　principle　which　condemns　the　appointment　of　executive　officers　by　popular　suffrage；　ought　the　chief　of　the　executive；　in　a　republican　government；　to　be　an　exception？　Is　it　a　good　rule；　which；　in　the　American　Constitution；　provides　for　the　election　of　the　President　once　in　every　four　years　by　the　entire　people？　The　question　is　not　free　from　difficulty。　There　is　unquestionably　some　advantage；　in　a　country　like　America；　where　no　apprehension　needs　be　entertained　of　a　coup　d'etat；　in　making　the　chief　minister　constitutionally　independent