the man versus the state-第13部分

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f　1872；　there　had　been　passed　18；110　public　Acts；　of　which　he　estimated　that　four…fifths　had　been　wholly　or　partially　repealed。　He　also　stated　that　the　number　of　public　Acts　repealed　wholly　or　in　part；　or　amended；　during　the　three　years　1870…71…72　had　been　3；532；　of　which　2；759　had　been　totally　repealed。　To　see　whether　this　rate　of　repeal　has　continued；　I　have　referred　to　the　annually…issued　volumes　of　〃The　Public　General　Statutes〃　for　the　last　three　sessions。　Saying　nothing　of　the　numerous　amended　Acts；　the　result　is　that　in　the　last　three　sessions　there　have　been　totally　repealed；　separately　or　in　groups；　650　Acts；　belonging　to　the　present　reign；　besides　many　of　preceding　reigns。　This；　of　course；　is　greatly　above　the　average　rate；　for　there　has　of　late　been　an　active　purgation　of　the　statute…book。　But　making　every　allowance；　we　must　infer　that　within　our　own　times；　repeals　have　mounted　some　distance　into　the　thousands。　Doubtless　a　number　of　them　have　been　of　laws　that　were　obsolete；　others　have　been　demanded　by　changes　of　circumstances　（though　seeing　how　many　of　them　are　of　quite　recent　Acts；　this　has　not　been　a　large　cause）；　others　simply　because　they　were　inoperative；　and　others　have　been　consequent　on　the　consolidations　of　numerous　Acts　into　single　Acts。　But　unquestionably　in　multitudinous　cases；　repeals　came　because　the　Acts　had　proved　injurious。　We　talk　glibly　of　such　changes　　we　think　of　cancelled　legislation　with　indifference。　We　forget　that　before　laws　are　abolished　they　have　generally　been　inflicting　evils　more　or　less　serious；　some　for　a　few　years；　some　for　tens　of　years；　some　for　centuries。　Change　your　vague　idea　of　a　bad　law　into　a　definite　idea　of　it　as　an　agency　operating　on　people's　lives；　and　you　see　that　it　means　so　much　of　pain；　so　much　of　illness；　so　much　of　mortality。　A　vicious　form　of　legal　procedure；　for　example；　either　enacted　or　tolerated；　entails　on　suitors；　costs；　or　delays；　or　defeats。　What　do　these　imply？　Loss　of　money；　often　ill…spared；　great　and　prolonged　anxiety；　frequently　consequent　illness；　unhappiness　of　family　and　dependents；　children　stinted　in　food　and　clothing　　all　of　them　miseries　which　bring　after　them　multiplied　remoter　miseries。　Add　to　which　there　are　the　far　more　numerous　cases　of　those　who；　lacking　the　means　or　the　courage　to　enter　on　law…suits；　and　therefore　submitting　to　frauds；　are　impoverished；　and　have　similarly　to　bear　the　pains　of　body　and　mind　which　ensue。　Even　to　say　that　a　law　has　been　simply　a　hindrance；　is　to　say　that　it　has　caused　needless　loss　of　time；　extra　trouble；　and　additional　worry；　and　among　over…burdened　people　extra　trouble　and　worry　imply；　here　and　there；　break…downs　in　health　with　their　entailed　direct　and　indirect　sufferings。　Seeing；　then；　that　bad　legislation　means　injury　to　men's　lives；　judge　what　must　be　the　total　amount　of　mental　distress；　physical　pain；　and　raised　mortality；　which　these　thousands　of　repealed　Acts　of　Parliament　represent！　Fully　to　bring　home　the　truth　that　law…making　unguided　by　adequate　knowledge　brings　immense　evils；　let　me　take　a　special　case　which　a　question　of　the　day　recalls。　

　　　　Already　I　have　hinted　that　interferences　with　the　connexion　between　supply　and　demand；　given　up　in　certain　fields　after　immense　mischiefs　had　been　done　during　many　centuries；　are　now　taking　place　in　other　fields。　This　connexion　is　supposed　to　hold　only　where　it　has　been　proved　to　hold　by　the　evils　of　disregarding　it：　so　feeble　is　men's　belief　in　it。　There　seems　no　suspicion　that　in　cases　where　it　seems　to　fail；　natural　causation　has　been　traversed　by　artificial　hindrances。　And　yet　in　the　case　to　which　I　now　refer　　that　of　the　supply　of　houses　for　the　poor　　it　needs　but　to　ask　what　laws　have　been　doing　for　a　long　time　past；　to　see　that　the　terrible　evils　complained　of　are　mostly　law…made。　　　　　　A　generation　ago　discussion　was　taking　place　concerning　the　inadequacy　and　badness　of　industrial　dwellings；　and　I　had　occasion　to　deal　with　the　question。　Here　is　a　passage　then　written：　　

　　　　〃An　architect　and　surveyor　describes　it　＇the　Building　Act＇　as　having　worked　after　the　following　manner。　In　those　districts　of　London　consisting　of　inferior　houses　built　in　that　unsubstantial　fashion　which　the　New　Building　Act　was　to　mend；　there　obtains　an　average　rent；　sufficiently　remunerative　to　landlords　whose　houses　were　run　up　economically　before　the　New　Building　Act　was　passed。　This　existing　average　rent　fixes　the　rent　that　must　be　charged　in　these　districts　for　new　houses　of　the　same　accommodation　　that　is　the　same　number　of　rooms；　for　the　people　they　are　built　for　do　not　appreciate　the　extra　safety　of　living　within　walls　strengthened　with　hoop…iron　bond。　Now　it　turns　out　upon　trial；　that　houses　built　in　accordance　with　the　present　regulations；　and　let　at　this　established　rate；　bring　in　nothing　like　a　reasonable　return。　Builders　have　consequently　confined　themselves　to　erecting　houses　in　better　districts　（where　the　possibility　of　a　profitable　competition　with　pre…existing　houses　shows　that　those　pre…existing　houses　were　tolerably　substantial）；　and　have　ceased　to　erect　dwellings　for　the　masses；　except　in　the　suburbs　where　no　pressing　sanitary　evils　exist。　Meanwhile；　in　the　inferior　districts　above　described；　has　resulted　an　increase　of　overcrowding　　half…a…dozen　families　in　a　house；　a　score　of　lodgers　to　a　room。　Nay；　more　than　this　has　resulted。　That　state　of　miserable　dilapidation　into　which　these　abodes　of　the　poor　are　allowed　to　fall；　is　due　to　the　absence　of　competition　from　new　houses。　Landlords　do　not　find　their　tenants　tempted　away　by　the　offer　of　better　accommodation。　Repairs；　being　unnecessary　for　securing　the　largest　amount　of　profit；　are　not　made。。。　In　fact　for　a　large　percentage　of　the　very　horrors　which　our　sanitary　agitators　are　trying　to　cure　by　law；　we　have　to　thank　previous　agitators　of　the　same　school！〃　　　　　　　　　Social　Statics；　p。　384　（edition　of　1851）　

　　　　These　were　not　the　only　law…made　causes　of　such　evils。　As　shown　in　the　following　further　passage；　sundry　others　were　recognized：　　

　　　　〃Writing　before　the　repeal　of　the　brick…duty；　the　Builder　says：　　'It　is　supposed　that　one…fourth　of　the　cost　of　a　dwelling　which　lets　for　2s。　6d。　or　3s。　a　week　is　caused　by　the　expense　of　the　title…deeds　and　the　tax　on　wood　and　bricks　used　in　its　construction。　Of　course；　the　owner　of　such　property　must　be　remunerated；　and　he　therefore　charges　7　1/2d。　or　9d。　a　week　to　cover　these　burdens。'　Mr　C。　Gatliff；　secretary　to　the　Society　for　Improving　the　Dwellings　of　the　Working　Classes；　describing　the　effect　of　the　window…tax；　says：　　'They　are　now　paying　upon　their　institution　in　St。　Pancras　the　sum　of　*162　16s。　in　window…duties；　or　1　per　cent。　per　annum　upon　the　original　outlay。　The　average　rental　paid　by　the　Society's　tenants　is　5s。　6d。　per　week；　and　the　window…duty　deducts　from　this　71/4d。　per　week。'〃　Times；　January　31；　1850。　　　　　　　　　　　　　Social　Statics；　p。　385　（edition　of　1851）。

　　　　Neither　is　this　all　the　evidence　which　the　press　of　those　days　afforded。　There　was　published　in　the　Times　of　December　7；　1850　（too　late　to　be　used　in　the　above…named　work；　which　I　issued　in　the　last　week　of　1850）；　a　letter　dated　from　the　Reform　Club；　and　signed　〃Architect；〃　which　contained　the　following　passages：　　

　　　　〃Lord　Kinnaird　recommends　in　your　paper　of　yesterday　the　construction　of　model　lodging…houses　by　throwing　two　or　three　houses　into　one。　　　　　　〃Allow　me　to　suggest　to　his　Lordship；　and　to　his　friend　Lord　Ashley　to　whom　he　refers；　that　if；　　

　　　　1。　The　window…tax　were　repealed；　　　　　2。　The　building　Act　repealed　（excepting　the　clauses　enacting　that　party　and　eternal　walls　shall　be　fireproof）；　　　　　3。　The　timber　duties　either　equalized　or　repealed；　and；　　　　　4。　An　Act　passed　to　facilitate　the　transfer　of　property；　

　　　　　〃There　would　be　no　more　necessity　for　model　lodging…houses　than　there　is　for　model　ships；　model　cotton…mills；　or　model　steam…engines。　　　　　　〃The　first　limits　the　poor　man's　house　to　seven　windows；　　　　　〃The　second　limits　the　size　of　the　poor　man's　house　to　25　feet　by　18　（about　the　size　of　a　gentleman's　dining…room）；　into　which　space　the　builder　has　to　cram　a　staircase；　an　entrance…passage；　a　parlour；　and　a　kitchen　（walls　and　partitions　included）。　　　　　　〃The　third　induces　the　builder　to　erect　the　poor　man's　house　of　timber　unfit　for　building　purposes；　the　duty　on　the　good　material　（Baltic）　being　fifteen　times　more　than　the　duty　on　the　bad　or　injurious　article　（Canadian）。　The　Government；　even；　exclude　the　latter　from　all　their　contractors。　　　　　　〃The　fourth　would　have　considerable　influence　upon　the　present　miserable　state　of　the　dwellings　of　the　poor。　Small　freeholds　might　then　be　transferred　as　easily　as　leaseholds。　The　effect　of　building　leases　has　been　a　direct　inducement　to　bad　building。〃　

　　　　To　guard　against　mis…statement　or　over…statement；　I　have　taken　the　precaution　to　consult　a　large　East…end　builder　and　contractor　of　forty　years'　experience；　Mr　C。　Forrest；　Museum　Works；　17；　Victoria　Park　Square；　Bethnal　Green；　who；　being　churchwarden；　member　of　the　vestry；　and　of　the　board　of　guardians；　adds　extensive　knowledge　of　local　public　affairs　to　his　extensive　knowledge　of　the　building　business。　Mr　Forrest；　who　authorizes　me　to　give　his　name；　verifies　the　foregoing　statements　with　the　exception　of　one　which　he　strengthens。　He　says　that　〃Architect〃　understates　the　evil　entailed　by　the　definition　of　a　〃fourth…rate　house；〃　since　the　dimensions　are　much　less　than　those　he　gives　perhaps　in　conformity　with　the　provisions　of　a　more　recent　Building　Act）。　Mr　Forrest　has　done　more　than　this。　Besides　illustrating　the　bad　effects　of　great　increase　in　ground…rents　（in　sixty　years　from　*1　to　*8　10s。　for　a　fourth…rate　house）　which；　joined　with　other　causes；　had　obliged　him　to　abandon　plans　for　industrial　dwellings　he　had　intended　to　build　　besides　agreeing　with　〃Architect〃　that　this　evil　has　been　greatly　increased　by　the　difficulties　of　land…transfer　due　to　the　law…established　system　of　trusts　and　entails；　he　pointed　out　that　a　further　penalty　on　the　building　of　small　houses　is　inflicted　by　additions　to　local　burdens　（〃prohibitory　imposts〃　he　called　them）：　one　of　the　instances　he　named　being　that　to　the　cost　of　each　new　house　has　to　be　added　the　cost　of　pavement；　roadway　and　sewe