the man versus the state-第23部分

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ore　than　primordial　usages　or　tacit　conventions。〃（14*）　Among　the　Kirghizes　the　judgments　of　the　elders　are　based　on　〃universally　recognized　customs。〃（15*）　So；　too；　of　the　Dyaks；　Rajah　Brooke　tells　us　that　〃custom　seems　simply　to　have　become　the　law；　and　breaking　custom　leads　to　a　fine。〃（16*）　So　sacred　are　memorial　customs　with　the　primitive　man；　that　he　never　dreams　of　questioning　their　authority；　and　when　government　arises；　its　power　is　limited　by　them。　In　Madagascar　the　king's　word　suffices　only　〃where　there　is　no　law；　custom；　or　precedent。〃（17*）　Raffles　tells　us　that　in　Java　〃the　customs　of　the　country〃（18*）　restrain　the　will　of　the　ruler。　In　Sumatra；　too；　the　people　do　not　allow　their　chiefs　to　〃alter　their　ancient　usages。〃（19*）　Nay；　occasionally；　as　in　Ashantee；　〃the　attempt　to　change　some　customs〃　has　caused　a　king's　dethronement。〃（20*）　Now；　among　the　customs　which　we　thus　find　to　be　pre…governmental；　and　which　subordinate　governmental　power　when　it　is　established；　are　those　which　recognize　certain　individual　rights　　rights　to　act　in　certain　ways　and　possess　certain　things。　Even　where　the　recognition　of　property　is　least　developed；　there　is　proprietorship　of　weapons；　tools；　and　personal　ornaments；　and；　generally；　the　recognition　goes　far　beyond　this。　Among　such　North…American　Indians　as　the　Snakes；　who　are　without　government；　there　is　private　ownership　of　horses。　By　the　Chippewayans；　〃who　have　no　regular　government；〃　game　taken　in　private　traps　〃is　considered　as　private　property。〃（21*）　Kindred　facts　concerning　huts；　utensils；　and　other　personal　belongings；　might　be　brought　in　evidence　from　accounts　of　the　Ahts；　the　Comanches；　the　Esquimaux；　and　the　Brazilian　Indians。　Among　various　uncivilized　peoples；　custom　has　established　the　claim　to　the　crop　grown　on　a　cleared　plot　of　ground；　though　not　to　the　ground　itself；　and　the　Todas；　who　are　wholly　without　political　organization；　make　a　like　distinction　between　ownership　of　cattle　and　of　land。　Kolff's　statement　respecting　〃the　peaceful　Arafuras〃　well　sums　up　the　evidence。　They　〃recognize　the　right　of　property；　in　the　fullest　sense　of　the　word；　without　there　being　any　＇other＇　authority　among　them　than　the　decisions　of　their　elders；　according　to　the　customs　of　their　forefathers。〃（22*）　But　even　without　seeking　proofs　among　the　uncivilized；　sufficient　proofs　are　furnished　by　early　stages　of　the　civilized。　Bentham　and　his　followers　seem　to　have　forgotten　that　our　own　common　law　is　mainly　an　embodiment　of　〃the　customs　of　the　realm。〃　It　did　but　give　definite　shape　to　that　which　it　found　existing。　Thus；　the　fact　and　the　fiction　are　exactly　opposite　to　what　they　allege。　The　fact　is　that　property　was　well　recognized　before　law　existed；　the　fiction　is　that　〃property　is　the　creation　of　law。〃　　　　　Considerations　of　another　class　might　alone　have　led　them　to　pause　had　they　duly　considered　their　meanings。　Were　it　true；　as　alleged　by　Bentham；　that　Government　fulfils　its　office　〃by　creating　rights　which　it　confers　on　individuals；〃　then；　the　implication　would　be；　that　there　should　be　nothing　approaching　to　uniformity　in　the　rights　conferred　by　different　governments。　In　the　absence　of　a　determining　cause　over…ruling　their　decisions；　the　probabilities　would　be　many　to　one　against　considerable　correspondence　among　their　decisions。　But　there　is　very　great　correspondence。　Look　where　we　may；　we　find　that　governments　interdict　the　same　kinds　of　aggressions；　and；　by　implication；　recognize　the　same　kinds　of　claims。　They　habitually　forbid　homicide；　theft；　adultery：　thus　asserting　that　citizens　may　not　be　trespassed　against　in　certain　ways。　And　as　society　advances；　minor　individual　claims　are　protected　by　giving　remedies　for　breach　of　contract；　libel；　false　witness；　etc。　In　a　word；　comparisons　show　that　though　codes　of　law　differ　in　their　details　as　they　become　elaborated；　they　agree　in　their　fundamentals。　What　does　this　prove？　It　cannot　be　by　chance　that　they　thus　agree。　They　agree　because　the　alleged　creating　of　rights　was　nothing　else　than　giving　formal　sanction　and　better　definition　to　those　assertions　of　claims　and　recognitions　of　claims　which　naturally　originate　from　the　individual　desires　of　men　who　have　to　live　in　presence　of　one　another。　　　　　　Comparative　Sociology　discloses　another　group　of　facts　having　the　same　implication。　Along　with　social　progress　it　becomes　in　an　increasing　degree　the　business　of　the　State；　not　only　to　give　formal　sanction　to　men's　rights；　but　also　to　defend　them　against　aggressors。　Before　permanent　government　exists；　and　in　many　cases　after　it　is　considerably　developed；　the　rights　of　each　individual　are　asserted　and　maintained　by　himself；　or　by　his　family。　Alike　among　savage　tribes　at　present；　among　civilized　peoples　in　the　past；　and　even　now　in　unsettled　parts　of　Europe；　the　punishment　for　murder　is　a　matter　of　private　concern：　〃the　sacred　duty　of　blood　revenge〃　devolves　on　some　one　of　a　cluster　of　relatives。　Similarly；　compensations　for　aggressions　on　property　and　for　injuries　of　other　kinds；　are　in　early　states　of　society　independently　sought　by　each　man　or　family。　But　as　social　organization　advances；　the　central　ruling　power　undertakes　more　and　more　to　secure　to　individuals　their　personal　safety；　the　safety　of　their　possessions；　and；　to　some　extent；　the　enforcement　of　their　claims　established　by　contract。　Originally　concerned　almost　exclusively　with　defence　of　the　society　as　a　whole　against　other　societies；　or　with　conducting　its　attack　on　other　societies；　Government　has　come　more　and　more　to　discharge　the　function　of　defending　individuals　against　one　another。　It　needs　but　to　recall　the　days　when　men　habitually　carried　weapons；　or　to　bear　in　mind　the　greater　safety　to　person　and　property　achieved　by　improved　police…administration　during　our　own　time；　or　to　note　the　increased　facilities　now　given　for　recovering　small　debts；　to　see　that　the　insuring　to　each　individual　the　unhindered　pursuit　of　the　objects　of　life；　within　limits　set　by　others'　like　pursuits；　is　more　and　more　recognized　as　a　duty　of　the　State。　In　other　words；　along　with　social　progress；　there　goes　not　only　a　fuller　recognition　of　these　which　we　call　natural　rights；　but　also　a　better　enforcement　of　them　by　Government：　Government　becomes　more　and　more　the　servant　to　these　essential　pre…requisites　for　individual　welfare。　　　　　　An　allied　and　still　more　significant　change　has　accompanied　this。　In　early　stages；　at　the　same　time　that　the　State　failed　to　protect　the　individual　against　aggression；　it　was　itself　an　aggressor　in　multitudinous　ways。　Those　ancient　societies　which　progressed　enough　to　leave　records；　having　all　been　conquering　societies；　show　us　everywhere　the　traits　of　the　militant　regime。　As；　for　the　effectual　organization　of　fighting　bodies；　the　soldiers；　absolutely　obedient；　must　act　independently　only　when　commanded　to　do　it；　so；　for　the　effectual　organization　of　fighting　societies；　citizens　must　have　their　individualities　subordinated。　Private　claims　are　over…ridden　by　public　claims；　and　the　subject　loses　much　of　his　freedom　of　action。　One　result　is　that　the　system　of　regimentation；　pervading　the　society　as　well　as　the　army；　causes　detailed　regulation　of　conduct。　The　dictates　of　the　ruler；　sanctified　by　ascription　of　them　to　his　divine　ancestor；　are　unrestrained　by　any　conception　of　individual　liberty；　and　they　specify　men's　actions　to　an　unlimited　extent　　down　to　kinds　of　food　eaten；　modes　of　preparing　them；　shaping　of　beards；　fringing　of　dresses；　sowing　of　grain；　etc。　This　omnipresent　control；　which　the　ancient　Eastern　nations　in　general　exhibited；　was　exhibited　also　in　large　measure　by　the　Greeks；　and　was　carried　to　its　greatest　pitch　in　the　most　militant　city；　Sparta。　Similarly　during　medieval　days　throughout　Europe；　characterized　by　chronic　warfare　with　its　appropriate　political　forms　and　ideas；　there　were　scarcely　any　bounds　to　Governmental　interference：　agriculture；　manufactures；　trade；　were　regulated　in　detail；　religious　beliefs　and　observances　were　imposed；　and　rulers　said　by　whom　alone　furs　might　be　worn；　silver　used；　books　issued；　pigeons　kept；　etc。　etc。　But　along　with　increase　of　industrial　activities；　and　implied　substitution　of　the　regime　of　contract　for　the　regime　of　status；　and　growth　of　associated　sentiments；　there　went　（until　the　recent　reaction　accompanying　reversion　to　militant　activity）　a　decrease　of　meddling　with　people's　doings。　Legislation　gradually　ceased　to　regulate　the　cropping　of　fields；　or　dictate　the　ratio　of　cattle　to　acreage；　or　specify　modes　of　manufacture　and　materials　to　be　used；　or　fix　wages　and　prices；　or　interfere　with　dresses　and　games　（except　where　there　was　gambling）；　or　put　bounties　and　penalties　on　imports　or　exports；　or　prescribe　men's　beliefs；　religious　or　political；　or　prevent　them　from　combining　as　they　pleased；　or　travelling　where　they　liked。　That　is　to　say；　throughout　a　large　range　of　conduct；　the　right　of　the　citizen　to　uncontrolled　action　has　been　made　good　against　the　pretensions　of　the　State　to　control　him。　While　the　ruling　agency　has　increasingly　helped　him　to　exclude　intruders　from　that　private　sphere　in　which　he　pursues　the　objects　of　life；　it　has　itself　retreated　from　that　sphere；　or；　in　other　words　　decreased　its　intrusions。　　　　　　Not　even　yet　have　we　noted　all　the　classes　of　facts　which　tell　the　same　story。　It　is　told　afresh　in　the　improvements　and　reforms　of　law　itself；　as　well　as　in　the　admissions　and　assertions　of　those　who　have　effected　them。　〃So　early　as　the　fifteenth　century；〃　says　Professor　Pollock；　〃we　find　a　common…law　judge　declaring　that；　as　in　a　case　unprovided　for　by　known　rules　the　civilians　and　canonists　devise　a　new　rule　according　to　'the　law　of　nature　which　is　the　ground　of　all　laws；'　the　Courts　of　Westminster　can　and　will　do　the　like。〃（23*）　Again；　our　system　of　Equity；　introduced　and　developed　as　it　was　to　make　up　for　the　shortcomings　of　Common…law；　or　rectify　its　inequities；　proceeded　throughout　on　a　recognition　of　men's　claims　considered　as　existing　apart　from　legal　warrant。　And　the　changes　of　law　now　from　time　to　time　made　after　resistance；　are　similarly　made　in　pursuance　of　current　ideas　concerning　the　requirements　of　justice：　ideas　which；　instead　of　being　derived　from　the　law；　are　opposed　to　the　law。　For　example；　that　recent　Act　which　giv