the man versus the state-第25部分

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


ally　in　force。　They　still　hold　between　freemen；　and　between　the　heads　of　those　small　groups　which　form　the　units　of　early　societies；　and；　in　a　measure；　they　still　hold　within　these　small　groups　themselves；　since　survival　of　them　as　groups；　implies　such　recognition　of　the　claims　of　their　members；　even　when　slaves；　that　in　return　for　their　labours　they　get　sufficiencies　of　food；　clothing；　and　protection。　And　when；　with　diminution　of　warfare　and　growth　of　trade；　voluntary　co…operation　more　and　more　replaces　compulsory　co…operation；　and　the　carrying　on　of　social　life　by　exchange　under　agreement；　partially　suspended　for　a　time；　gradually　re…establishes　itself；　its　re…establishment　makes　possible　that　vast　elaborate　industrial　organization　by　which　a　great　nation　is　sustained。　　　　　　For　in　proportion　as　contracts　are　unhindered　and　the　performance　of　them　certain；　the　growth　is　great　and　the　social　life　active。　It　is　not　now　by　one　or　other　of　two　individuals　who　contract；　that　the　evil　effects　of　breach　of　contract　are　experienced。　In　an　advanced　society；　they　are　experienced　by　entire　classes　of　producers　and　distributors；　which　have　arisen　through　division　of　labour；　and；　eventually；　they　are　experienced　by　everybody。　Ask　on　what　condition　it　is　that　Birmingham　devotes　itself　to　manufacturing　hardware；　or　part　of　Staffordshire　to　making　pottery；　or　Lancashire　to　weaving　cotton。　Ask　how　the　rural　people　who　here　grow　wheat　and　there　pasture　cattle；　find　it　possible　to　occupy　themselves　in　their　special　businesses。　These　groups　can　severally　thus　act　only　if　each　gets　from　the　others　in　exchange　for　its　own　surplus　product；　due　shares　of　their　surplus　products。　No　longer　directly　effected　by　barter；　this　obtainment　of　their　respective　shares　of　one　another's　products　is　indirectly　effected　by　money；　and　if　we　ask　how　each　division　of　producers　gets　its　due　amount　of　the　required　money；　the　answer　is　　by　fulfilment　of　contract。　If　Leeds　makes　woollens　and　does　not；　by　fulfilment　of　contract；　receive　the　means　of　obtaining　from　agricultural　districts　the　needful　quantity　of　food；　it　must　starve；　and　stop　producing　woollens。　If　South　Wales　smelts　iron　and　there　comes　no　equivalent　agreed　upon；　enabling　it　to　get　fabrics　for　clothing；　its　industry　must　cease。　And　so　throughout；　in　general　and　in　detail。　That　mutual　dependence　of　parts　which　we　see　in　social　organization；　as　in　individual　organization；　is　possible　only　on　condition　that　while　each　part　does　the　particular　kind　of　work　it　has　become　adjusted　to；　it　receives　its　proportion　of　those　materials　required　for　repair　and　growth；　which　all　the　other　parts　have　joined　to　produce：　such　proportion　being　settled　by　bargaining。　Moreover；　it　is　by　fulfilment　of　contract　that　there　is　effected　a　balancing　of　all　the　various　products　to　the　various　needs　　the　large　manufacture　of　knives　and　the　small　manufacture　of　lancets；　the　great　growth　of　wheat　and　the　little　growth　of　mustard…seed。　The　check　on　undue　production　of　each　commodity；　results　from　finding　that　after　a　certain　quantity；　no　one　will　agree　to　take　any　further　quantity　on　terms　that　yield　an　adequate　money　equivalent。　And　so　there　is　prevented　a　useless　expenditure　of　labour　in　producing　that　which　society　does　not　want。　　　　　　Lastly；　we　have　to　note　the　still　more　significant　fact　that　the　condition　under　which　only　any　specialized　group　of　workers　can　grow　when　the　community　needs　more　of　its　particular　kind　of　work；　is　that　contracts　shall　be　free　and　fulfilment　of　them　enforced。　If　when；　from　lack　of　material；　Lancashire　failed　to　supply　the　usual　quantity　of　cotton…goods；　there　had　been　such　interference　with　contracts　as　prevented　Yorkshire　from　asking　a　greater　price　for　its　woollens；　which　it　was　enabled　to　do　by　the　greater　demand　for　them；　there　would　have　been　no　temptation　to　put　more　capital　into　the　woollen　manufacture；　no　increase　in　the　amount　of　machinery　and　number　of　artizans　employed；　and　no　increase　of　woollens：　the　consequence　being　that　the　whole　community　would　have　suffered　from　not　having　deficient　cottons　replaced　by　extra　woollens。　What　serious　injury　may　result　to　a　nation　if　its　members　are　hindered　from　contracting　with　one　another；　was　well　shown　in　the　contrast　between　England　and　France　in　respect　of　railways。　Here；　though　obstacles　were　at　first　raised　by　classes　predominant　in　the　legislature；　the　obstacles　were　not　such　as　prevented　capitalists　from　investing；　engineers　from　furnishing　directive　skill；　or　contractors　from　undertaking　works；　and　the　high　interest　originally　obtained　on　investments；　the　great　profits　made　by　contractors；　and　the　large　payments　received　by　engineers；　led　to　that　drafting　of　money；　energy；　and　ability；　into　railway…making；　which　rapidly　developed　our　railway…system；　to　the　enormous　increase　of　our　national　prosperity。　But　when　M。　Thiers；　then　Minister　of　Public　Works；　came　over　to　inspect；　and　having　been　taken　about　by　Mr　Vignoles；　said　to　him　when　leaving：　〃I　do　not　think　railways　are　suited　to　France；〃（31*）　there　resulted；　from　the　consequent　policy　of　hindering　free　contract；　a　delay　of　〃eight　or　ten　years〃　in　that　material　progress　which　France　experienced　when　railways　were　made。　　　　　　What　do　all　these　facts　mean？　They　mean　that　for　the　healthful　activity　and　due　proportioning　of　those　industries；　occupations；　professions；　which　maintain　and　aid　the　life　of　a　society；　there　must；　in　the　first　place；　be　few　restrictions　on　men's　liberties　to　make　agreements　with　one　another；　and　there　must；　in　the　second　place；　be　an　enforcement　of　the　agreements　which　they　do　make。　As　we　have　seen；　the　checks　naturally　arising　to　each　man's　actions　when　men　become　associated；　are　those　only　which　result　from　mutual　limitation；　and　there　consequently　can　be　no　resulting　check　to　the　contracts　they　voluntarily　make：　interference　with　these　is　interference　with　those　rights　to　free　action　which　remain　to　each　when　the　rights　of　others　are　fully　recognized。　And　then；　as　we　have　seen；　enforcement　of　their　rights　implies　enforcement　of　contracts　made；　since　breach　of　contract　is　indirect　aggression。　If；　when　a　customer　on　one　side　of　the　counter　asks　a　shopkeeper　on　the　other　for　a　shilling's　worth　of　his　goods；　and；　while　the　shopkeeper's　back　is　turned；　walks　off　with　the　goods　without　leaving　the　shilling　he　tacitly　contracted　to　give；　his　act　differs　in　no　essential　way　from　robbery。　In　each　such　case　the　individual　injured　is　deprived　of　something　he　possessed；　without　receiving　the　equivalent　something　bargained　for；　and　is　in　the　state　of　having　expended　his　labour　without　getting　benefit　　has　had　an　essential　condition　to　the　maintenance　of　life　infringed。　　　　　　Thus；　then；　it　results　that　to　recognize　and　enforce　the　rights　of　individuals；　is　at　the　same　time　to　recognize　and　enforce　the　conditions　to　a　normal　social　life。　There　is　one　vital　requirement　for　both。　

Before　turning　to　those　corollaries　which　have　practical　applications；　let　us　observe　how　the　special　conclusions　drawn　converge　to　the　one　general　conclusion　originally　foreshadowed　　glancing　at　them　in　reversed　order。　　　　　　We　have　just　found　that　the　pre…requisite　to　individual　life　is　in　a　double　sense　the　pre…requisite　to　social　life。　The　life　of　a　society；　in　whichever　of　two　senses　conceived；　depends　on　maintenance　of　individual　rights。　If　it　is　nothing　more　than　the　sum　of　the　lives　of　citizens；　this　implication　is　obvious。　If　it　consists　of　those　many　unlike　activities　which　citizens　carry　on　in　mutual　dependence；　still　this　aggregate　impersonal　life　rises　or　falls　according　as　the　rights　of　individuals　are　enforced　or　denied。　　　　　　Study　of　men's　politico…ethical　ideas　and　sentiments；　leads　to　allied　conclusions。　Primitive　peoples　of　various　types　show　us　that　before　governments　exist；　memorial　customs　recognize　private　claims　and　justify　maintenance　of　them。　Codes　of　law　independently　evolved　by　different　nations；　agree　in　forbidding　certain　trespasses　on　the　persons；　properties；　and　liberties　of　citizens；　and　their　correspondences　imply；　not　an　artificial　source　for　individual　rights；　but　a　natural　source。　Along　with　social　development；　the　formulating　in　law　of　the　rights　pre…established　by　custom；　becomes　more　definite　and　elaborate。　At　the　same　time；　Government　undertakes　to　an　increasing　extent　the　business　of　enforcing　them。　While　it　has　been　becoming　a　better　protector；　Government　has　been　becoming　less　aggressive　has　more　and　more　diminished　its　intrusions　on　men's　spheres　of　private　action。　And；　lastly；　as　in　past　times　laws　were　avowedly　modified　to　fit　better　with　current　ideas　of　equity；　so　now；　law…reformers　are　guided　by　ideas　of　equity　which　are　not　derived　from　law　but　to　which　law　has　to　conform。　　　　　　Here；　then；　we　have　a　politico…ethical　theory　justified　alike　by　analysis　and　by　history。　What　have　we　against　it？　A　fashionable　counter…theory　which　proves　to　be　unjustifiable。　On　the　one　hand；　while　we　find　that　individual　life　and　social　life　both　imply　maintenance　of　the　natural　relation　between　efforts　and　benefits；　we　also　find　that　this　natural　relation；　recognized　before　Government　existed；　has　been　all　along　asserting　and　re…asserting　itself；　and　obtaining　better　recognition　in　codes　of　law　and　systems　of　ethics。　On　the　other　hand；　those　who；　denying　natural　rights；　commit　themselves　to　the　assertion　that　rights　are　artificially　created　by　law；　are　not　only　flatly　contradicted　by　facts；　but　their　assertion　is　self…destructive：　the　endeavour　to　substantiate　it；　when　challenged；　involves　them　in　manifold　absurdities。　　　　　　Nor　is　this　all。　The　re…institution　of　a　vague　popular　conception　in　a　definite　form　on　a　scientific　basis；　leads　us　to　a　rational　view　of　the　relation　between　the　wills　of　majorities　and　minorities。　It　turns　out　that　those　co…operations　in　which　all　can　voluntarily　unite；　and　in　the　caring　on　of　which　the　will　of　the　majority　is　rightly　supreme；　are　co…operations　for　maintaining　the　conditions　requisite　to　individual　and　social　life。　Defence　of　the　society　as　a　whole　against　eternal　invaders；　has　for　its　remote　end　to　preserve　each　citizen　in　possession　of　such　means　as　he　has　for　satisfying　his　desires；　and　in　possession　of　such　liberty　as　he　has　for　getting　further　means