the golden bough-第200部分

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　burned　in　the　spring　bonfires　are　sometimes　laid　on　the　fields　in　the　belief　that　they　will　keep　vermin　from　the　crop。　Again；　the　rule　that　the　last　married　bride　must　leap　over　the　fire　in　which　the　straw…man　is　burned　on　Shrove　Tuesday；　is　probably　intended　to　make　her　fruitful。　But；　as　we　have　seen；　the　power　of　blessing　women　with　offspring　is　a　special　attribute　of　tree…spirits；　it　is　therefore　a　fair　presumption　that　the　burning　effigy　over　which　the　bride　must　leap　is　a　representative　of　the　fertilising　tree…spirit　or　spirit　of　vegetation。　This　character　of　the　effigy；　as　representative　of　the　spirit　of　vegetation；　is　almost　unmistakable　when　the　figure　is　composed　of　an　unthreshed　sheaf　of　corn　or　is　covered　from　head　to　foot　with　flowers。　Again；　it　is　to　be　noted　that；　instead　of　a　puppet；　trees；　either　living　or　felled；　are　sometimes　burned　both　in　the　spring　and　midsummer　bonfires。　Now；　considering　the　frequency　with　which　the　tree…spirit　is　represented　in　human　shape；　it　is　hardly　rash　to　suppose　that　when　sometimes　a　tree　and　sometimes　an　effigy　is　burned　in　these　fires；　the　effigy　and　the　tree　are　regarded　as　equivalent　to　each　other；　each　being　a　representative　of　the　tree…spirit。　This；　again；　is　confirmed　by　observing；　first；　that　sometimes　the　effigy　which　is　to　be　burned　is　carried　about　simultaneously　with　a　May…tree；　the　former　being　carried　by　the　boys；　the　latter　by　the　girls；　and；　second；　that　the　effigy　is　sometimes　tied　to　a　living　tree　and　burned　with　it。　In　these　cases；　we　can　scarcely　doubt；　the　tree…spirit　is　represented；　as　we　have　found　it　represented　before；　in　duplicate；　both　by　the　tree　and　by　the　effigy。　That　the　true　character　of　the　effigy　as　a　representative　of　the　beneficent　spirit　of　vegetation　should　sometimes　be　forgotten；　is　natural。　The　custom　of　burning　a　beneficent　god　is　too　foreign　to　later　modes　of　thought　to　escape　misinterpretation。　Naturally　enough　the　people　who　continued　to　burn　his　image　came　in　time　to　identify　it　as　the　effigy　of　persons；　whom；　on　various　grounds；　they　regarded　with　aversion；　such　as　Judas　Iscariot；　Luther；　and　a　witch。

The　general　reasons　for　killing　a　god　or　his　representative　have　been　examined　in　a　preceding　chapter。　But　when　the　god　happens　to　be　a　deity　of　vegetation；　there　are　special　reasons　why　he　should　die　by　fire。　For　light　and　heat　are　necessary　to　vegetable　growth；　and；　on　the　principle　of　sympathetic　magic；　by　subjecting　the　personal　representative　of　vegetation　to　their　influence；　you　secure　a　supply　of　these　necessaries　for　trees　and　crops。　In　other　words；　by　burning　the　spirit　of　vegetation　in　a　fire　which　represents　the　sun；　you　make　sure　that；　for　a　time　at　least；　vegetation　shall　have　plenty　of　sun。　It　may　be　objected　that；　if　the　intention　is　simply　to　secure　enough　sunshine　for　vegetation；　this　end　would　be　better　attained；　on　the　principles　of　sympathetic　magic；　by　merely　passing　the　representative　of　vegetation　through　the　fire　instead　of　burning　him。　In　point　of　fact　this　is　sometimes　done。　In　Russia；　as　we　have　seen；　the　straw　figure　of　Kupalo　is　not　burned　in　the　midsummer　fire；　but　merely　carried　backwards　and　forwards　across　it。　But；　for　the　reasons　already　given；　it　is　necessary　that　the　god　should　die；　so　next　day　Kupalo　is　stripped　of　her　ornaments　and　thrown　into　a　stream。　In　this　Russian　custom　the　passage　of　the　image　through　the　fire；　if　it　is　not　simply　a　purification；　may　possibly　be　a　sun…charm；　the　killing　of　the　god　is　a　separate　act；　and　the　mode　of　killing　himby　drowningis　probably　a　rain…charm。　But　usually　people　have　not　thought　it　necessary　to　draw　this　fine　distinction；　for　the　various　reasons　already　assigned；　it　is　advantageous；　they　think；　to　expose　the　god　of　vegetation　to　a　considerable　degree　of　heat；　and　it　is　also　advantageous　to　kill　him；　and　they　combine　these　advantages　in　a　rough…and…ready　way　by　burning　him。

2。　The　Burning　of　Men　and　Animals　in　the　Fires

IN　THE　POPULAR　customs　connected　with　the　fire…festivals　of　Europe　there　are　certain　features　which　appear　to　point　to　a　former　practice　of　human　sacrifice。　We　have　seen　reasons　for　believing　that　in　Europe　living　persons　have　often　acted　as　representatives　of　the　tree…spirit　and　corn…spirit　and　have　suffered　death　as　such。　There　is　no　reason；　therefore；　why　they　should　not　have　been　burned；　if　any　special　advantages　were　likely　to　be　attained　by　putting　them　to　death　in　that　way。　The　consideration　of　human　suffering　is　not　one　which　enters　into　the　calculations　of　primitive　man。　Now；　in　the　fire…festivals　which　we　are　discussing；　the　pretence　of　burning　people　is　sometimes　carried　so　far　that　it　seems　reasonable　to　regard　it　as　a　mitigated　survival　of　an　older　custom　of　actually　burning　them。　Thus　in　Aachen；　as　we　saw；　the　man　clad　in　peas…straw　acts　so　cleverly　that　the　children　really　believe　he　is　being　burned。　At　Jumièges　in　Normandy　the　man　clad　all　in　green；　who　bore　the　title　of　the　Green　Wolf；　was　pursued　by　his　comrades；　and　when　they　caught　him　they　feigned　to　fling　him　upon　the　midsummer　bonfire。　Similarly　at　the　Beltane　fires　in　Scotland　the　pretended　victim　was　seized；　and　a　show　made　of　throwing　him　into　the　flames；　and　for　some　time　afterwards　people　affected　to　speak　of　him　as　dead。　Again；　in　the　Hallowe'en　bonfires　of　Northeastern　Scotland　we　may　perhaps　detect　a　similar　pretence　in　the　custom　observed　by　a　lad　of　lying　down　as　close　to　the　fire　as　possible　and　allowing　the　other　lads　to　leap　over　him。　The　titular　king　at　Aix；　who　reigned　for　a　year　and　danced　the　first　dance　round　the　midsummer　bonfire；　may　perhaps　in　days　of　old　have　discharged　the　less　agreeable　duty　of　serving　as　fuel　for　that　fire　which　in　later　times　he　only　kindled。　In　the　following　customs　Mannhardt　is　probably　right　in　recognising　traces　of　an　old　custom　of　burning　a　leaf…clad　representative　of　the　spirit　of　vegetation。　At　Wolfeck；　in　Austria；　on　Midsummer　Day；　a　boy　completely　clad　in　green　fir　branches　goes　from　house　to　house；　accompanied　by　a　noisy　crew；　collecting　wood　for　the　bonfire。　As　he　gets　the　wood　he　sings：

Forest　trees　I　want；　No　sour　milk　for　me；　But　beer　and　wine；　So　can　the　wood…man　be　jolly　and　gay。

In　some　parts　of　Bavaria；　also；　the　boys　who　go　from　house　to　house　collecting　fuel　for　the　midsummer　bonfire　envelop　one　of　their　number　from　head　to　foot　in　green　branches　of　firs；　and　lead　him　by　a　rope　through　the　whole　village。　At　Moosheim；　in　Wurtemberg；　the　festival　of　St。　John's　Fire　usually　lasted　for　fourteen　days；　ending　on　the　second　Sunday　after　Midsummer　Day。　On　this　last　day　the　bonfire　was　left　in　charge　of　the　children；　while　the　older　people　retired　to　a　wood。　Here　they　encased　a　young　fellow　in　leaves　and　twigs；　who；　thus　disguised；　went　to　the　fire；　scattered　it；　and　trod　it　out。　All　the　people　present　fled　at　the　sight　of　him。

But　it　seems　possible　to　go　farther　than　this。　Of　human　sacrifices　offered　on　these　occasions　the　most　unequivocal　traces；　as　we　have　seen；　are　those　which；　about　a　hundred　years　ago；　still　lingered　at　the　Beltane　fires　in　the　Highlands　of　Scotland；　that　is；　among　a　Celtic　people　who；　situated　in　a　remote　corner　of　Europe　and　almost　completely　isolated　from　foreign　influence；　had　till　then　conserved　their　old　heathenism　better　perhaps　than　any　other　people　in　the　West　of　Europe。　It　is　significant；　therefore；　that　human　sacrifices　by　fire　are　known；　on　unquestionable　evidence；　to　have　been　systematically　practised　by　the　Celts。　The　earliest　description　of　these　sacrifices　has　been　bequeathed　to　us　by　Julius　Caesar。　As　conqueror　of　the　hitherto　independent　Celts　of　Gaul；　Caesar　had　ample　opportunity　of　observing　the　national　Celtic　religion　and　manners；　while　these　were　still　fresh　and　crisp　from　the　native　mint　and　had　not　yet　been　fused　in　the　melting…pot　of　Roman　civilisation。　With　his　own　notes　Caesar　appears　to　have　incorporated　the　observations　of　a　Greek　explorer；　by　name　Posidonius；　who　travelled　in　Gaul　about　fifty　years　before　Caesar　carried　the　Roman　arms　to　the　English　Channel。　The　Greek　geographer　Strabo　and　the　historian　Diodorus　seem　also　to　have　derived　their　descriptions　of　the　Celtic　sacrifices　from　the　work　of　Posidonius；　but　independently　of　each　other；　and　of　Caesar；　for　each　of　the　three　derivative　accounts　contain　some　details　which　are　not　to　be　found　in　either　of　the　others。　By　combining　them；　therefore；　we　can　restore　the　original　account　of　Posidonius　with　some　probability；　and　thus　obtain　a　picture　of　the　sacrifices　offered　by　the　Celts　of　Gaul　at　the　close　of　the　second　century　before　our　era。　The　following　seem　to　have　been　the　main　outlines　of　the　custom。　Condemned　criminals　were　reserved　by　the　Celts　in　order　to　be　sacrificed　to　the　gods　at　a　great　festival　which　took　place　once　in　every　five　years。　The　more　there　were　of　such　victims；　the　greater　was　believed　to　be　the　fertility　of　the　land。　If　there　were　not　enough　criminals　to　furnish　victims；　captives　taken　in　war　were　immolated　to　supply　the　deficiency。　When　the　time　came　the　victims　were　sacrificed　by　the　Druids　or　priests。　Some　they　shot　down　with　arrows；　some　they　impaled；　and　some　they　burned　alive　in　the　following　manner。　Colossal　images　of　wicker…work　or　of　wood　and　grass　were　constructed；　these　were　filled　with　live　men；　cattle；　and　animals　of　other　kinds；　fire　was　then　applied　to　the　images；　and　they　were　burned　with　their　living　contents。

Such　were　the　great　festivals　held　once　every　five　years。　But　besides　these　quinquennial　festivals；　celebrated　on　so　grand　a　scale；　and　with；　apparently；　so　large　an　expenditure　of　human　life；　it　seems　reasonable　to　suppose　that　festivals　of　the　same　sort；　only　on　a　lesser　scale；　were　held　annually；　and　that　from　these　annual　festivals　are　lineally　descended　some　at　least　of　the　fire…festivals　which；　with　their　traces　of　human　sacrifices；　are　still　celebrated　year　by　year　in　many　parts　of　Europe。　The　gigantic　images　constructed　of　osiers　or　covered　with　grass　in　which　the　Druids　enclosed　their　victims　remind　us　of　the　leafy　framework　in　which　the　human　representative　of　the　tree…spirit　is　still　so　often　encased。　Hence；　seeing　that　the　fertility　of　the　land　was　apparently　supposed　to　depend　upon　the　due　performance　of　these　sacrifices；　Mannhardt　interpreted　the