the golden bough-第78部分

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n　fenna。　In　the　same　island　it　is　also　taboo　to　mention　the　name　of　an　elder　brother　in　his　presence。　Transgressions　of　these　rules　are　punished　with　fines。　In　Sunda　it　is　thought　that　a　particular　crop　would　be　spoilt　if　a　man　were　to　mention　the　names　of　his　father　and　mother。

Among　the　Nufoors　of　Dutch　New　Guinea　persons　who　are　related　to　each　other　by　marriage　are　forbidden　to　mention　each　other's　names。　Among　the　connexions　whose　names　are　thus　tabooed　are　wife；　mother…in…law；　father…in…law；　your　wife's　uncles　and　aunts　and　also　her　grand…uncles　and　grand…aunts；　and　the　whole　of　your　wife's　or　your　husband's　family　in　the　same　generation　as　yourself；　except　that　men　may　mention　the　names　of　their　brothers…in…law；　though　women　may　not。　The　taboo　comes　into　operation　as　soon　as　the　betrothal　has　taken　place　and　before　the　marriage　has　been　celebrated。　Families　thus　connected　by　the　betrothal　of　two　of　their　members　are　not　only　forbidden　to　pronounce　each　other's　names；　they　may　not　even　look　at　each　other；　and　the　rule　gives　rise　to　the　most　comical　scenes　when　they　happen　to　meet　unexpectedly。　And　not　merely　the　names　themselves；　but　any　words　that　sound　like　them　are　scrupulously　avoided　and　other　words　used　in　their　place。　If　it　should　chance　that　a　person　has　inadvertently　uttered　a　forbidden　name；　he　must　at　once　throw　himself　on　the　floor　and　say；　I　have　mentioned　a　wrong　name。　I　throw　it　through　the　chinks　of　the　floor　in　order　that　I　may　eat　well。

In　the　western　islands　of　Torres　Straits　a　man　never　mentioned　the　personal　names　of　his　father…in…law；　mother…in…law；　brother…in…law；　and　sister…in…law；　and　a　woman　was　subject　to　the　same　restrictions。　A　brother…in…law　might　be　spoken　of　as　the　husband　or　brother　of　some　one　whose　name　it　was　lawful　to　mention；　and　similarly　a　sister…in…law　might　be　called　the　wife　of　So…and…so。　If　a　man　by　chance　used　the　personal　name　of　his　brother…in…law；　he　was　ashamed　and　hung　his　head。　His　shame　was　only　relieved　when　he　had　made　a　present　as　compensation　to　the　man　whose　name　he　had　taken　in　vain。　The　same　compensation　was　made　to　a　sister…in…law；　a　father…in…law；　and　a　mother…in…law　for　the　accidental　mention　of　their　names。　Among　the　natives　who　inhabit　the　coast　of　the　Gazelle　Peninsula　in　New　Britain　to　mention　the　name　of　a　brother…in…law　is　the　grossest　possible　affront　you　can　offer　to　him；　it　is　a　crime　punishable　with　death。　In　the　Banks'　Islands；　Melanesia；　the　taboos　laid　on　the　names　of　persons　connected　by　marriage　are　very　strict。　A　man　will　not　mention　the　name　of　his　father…in…law；　much　less　the　name　of　his　mother…in…law；　nor　may　he　name　his　wife's　brother；　but　he　may　name　his　wife's　sistershe　is　nothing　to　him。　A　woman　may　not　name　her　father…in…law；　nor　on　any　account　her　son…in…law。　Two　people　whose　children　have　intermarried　are　also　debarred　from　mentioning　each　other's　names。　And　not　only　are　all　these　persons　forbidden　to　utter　each　other's　names；　they　may　not　even　pronounce　ordinary　words　which　chance　to　be　either　identical　with　these　names　or　to　have　any　syllables　in　common　with　them。　Thus　we　hear　of　a　native　of　these　islands　who　might　not　use　the　common　words　for　pig　and　to　die；　because　these　words　occurred　in　the　polysyllabic　name　of　his　son…in…law；　and　we　are　told　of　another　unfortunate　who　might　not　pronounce　the　everyday　words　for　hand　and　hot　on　account　of　his　wife's　brother's　name；　and　who　was　even　debarred　from　mentioning　the　number　one；　because　the　word　for　one　formed　part　of　the　name　of　his　wife's　cousin。

The　reluctance　to　mention　the　names　or　even　syllables　of　the　names　of　persons　connected　with　the　speaker　by　marriage　can　hardly　be　separated　from　the　reluctance　evinced　by　so　many　people　to　utter　their　own　names　or　the　names　of　the　dead　or　of　the　dead　or　of　chiefs　and　kings；　and　if　the　reticence　as　to　these　latter　names　springs　mainly　from　superstition；　we　may　infer　that　the　reticence　as　to　the　former　has　no　better　foundation。　That　the　savage's　unwillingness　to　mention　his　own　name　is　based；　at　least　in　part；　on　a　superstitious　fear　of　the　ill　use　that　might　be　made　of　it　by　his　foes；　whether　human　or　spiritual；　has　already　been　shown。　It　remains　to　examine　the　similar　usage　in　regard　to　the　names　of　the　dead　and　of　royal　personages。

3。　Names　of　the　Dead　tabooed。

THE　CUSTOM　of　abstaining　from　all　mention　of　the　names　of　the　dead　was　observed　in　antiquity　by　the　Albanians　of　the　Caucasus；　and　at　the　present　day　it　is　in　full　force　among　many　savage　tribes。　Thus　we　are　told　that　one　of　the　customs　most　rigidly　observed　and　enforced　amongst　the　Australian　aborigines　is　never　to　mention　the　name　of　a　deceased　person；　whether　male　or　female；　to　name　aloud　one　who　has　departed　this　life　would　be　a　gross　violation　of　their　most　sacred　prejudices；　and　they　carefully　abstain　from　it。　The　chief　motive　for　this　abstinence　appears　to　be　a　fear　of　evoking　the　ghost；　although　the　natural　unwillingness　to　revive　past　sorrows　undoubtedly　operates　also　to　draw　the　veil　of　oblivion　over　the　names　of　the　dead。　Once　Mr。　Oldfield　so　terrified　a　native　by　shouting　out　the　name　of　a　deceased　person；　that　the　man　fairly　took　to　his　heels　and　did　not　venture　to　show　himself　again　for　several　days。　At　their　next　meeting　he　bitterly　reproached　the　rash　white　man　for　his　indiscretion；　nor　could　I；　adds　Mr。　Oldfield；　induce　him　by　any　means　to　utter　the　awful　sound　of　a　dead　man's　name；　for　by　so　doing　he　would　have　placed　himself　in　the　power　of　the　malign　spirits。　Among　the　aborigines　of　Victoria　the　dead　were　very　rarely　spoken　of；　and　then　never　by　their　names；　they　were　referred　to　in　a　subdued　voice　as　the　lost　one　or　the　poor　fellow　that　is　no　more。　To　speak　of　them　by　name　would；　it　was　supposed；　excite　the　malignity　of　Couit…gil；　the　spirit　of　the　departed；　which　hovers　on　earth　for　a　time　before　it　departs　for　ever　towards　the　setting　sun。　Of　the　tribes　on　the　Lower　Murray　River　we　are　told　that　when　a　person　dies　they　carefully　avoid　mentioning　his　name；　but　if　compelled　to　do　so；　they　pronounce　it　in　a　very　low　whisper；　so　faint　that　they　imagine　the　spirit　cannot　hear　their　voice。　Amongst　the　tribes　of　Central　Australia　no　one　may　utter　the　name　of　the　deceased　during　the　period　of　mourning；　unless　it　is　absolutely　necessary　to　do　so；　and　then　it　is　only　done　in　a　whisper　for　fear　of　disturbing　and　annoying　the　man's　spirit　which　is　walking　about　in　ghostly　form。　If　the　ghost　hears　his　name　mentioned　he　concludes　that　his　kinsfolk　are　not　mourning　for　him　properly；　if　their　grief　were　genuine　they　could　not　bear　to　bandy　his　name　about。　Touched　to　the　quick　by　their　hard…hearted　indifference　the　indignant　ghost　will　come　and　trouble　them　in　dreams。

The　same　reluctance　to　utter　the　names　of　the　dead　appears　to　prevail　among　all　the　Indian　tribes　of　America　from　Hudson's　Bay　Territory　to　Patagonia。　Among　the　Goajiros　of　Colombia　to　mention　the　dead　before　his　kinsmen　is　a　dreadful　offence；　which　is　often　punished　with　death；　for　if　it　happens　on　the　rancho　of　the　deceased；　in　presence　of　his　nephew　or　uncle；　they　will　assuredly　kill　the　offender　on　the　spot　if　they　can。　But　if　he　escapes；　the　penalty　resolves　itself　into　a　heavy　fine；　usually　of　two　or　more　oxen。

A　similar　reluctance　to　mention　the　names　of　the　dead　is　reported　of　peoples　so　widely　separated　from　each　other　as　the　Samoyeds　of　Siberia　and　the　Todas　of　Southern　India；　the　Mongols　of　Tartary　and　the　Tuaregs　of　the　Sahara；　the　Ainos　of　Japan　and　the　Akamba　and　Nandi　of　Eastern　Africa；　the　Tinguianes　of　the　Philippines　and　the　inhabitants　of　the　Nicobar　Islands；　of　Borneo；　of　Madagascar；　and　of　Tasmania。　In　all　cases；　even　where　it　is　not　expressly　stated；　the　fundamental　reason　for　this　avoidance　is　probably　the　fear　of　the　ghost。　That　this　is　the　real　motive　with　the　Tuaregs　we　are　positively　informed。　They　dread　the　return　of　the　dead　man's　spirit；　and　do　all　they　can　to　avoid　it　by　shifting　their　camp　after　a　death；　ceasing　for　ever　to　pronounce　the　name　of　the　departed；　and　eschewing　everything　that　might　be　regarded　as　an　evocation　or　recall　of　his　soul。　Hence　they　do　not；　like　the　Arabs；　designate　individuals　by　adding　to　their　personal　names　the　names　of　their　fathers；　they　never　speak　of　So…and…so；　son　of　So…and…so；　they　give　to　every　man　a　name　which　will　live　and　die　with　him。　So　among　some　of　the　Victorian　tribes　in　Australia　personal　names　were　rarely　perpetuated；　because　the　natives　believed　that　any　one　who　adopted　the　name　of　a　deceased　person　would　not　live　long；　probably　his　ghostly　namesake　was　supposed　to　come　and　fetch　him　away　to　the　spirit…land。

The　same　fear　of　the　ghost；　which　moves　people　to　suppress　his　old　name；　naturally　leads　all　persons　who　bear　a　similar　name　to　exchange　it　for　another；　lest　its　utterance　should　attract　the　attention　of　the　ghost；　who　cannot　reasonably　be　expected　to　discriminate　between　all　the　different　applications　of　the　same　name。　Thus　we　are　told　that　in　the　Adelaide　and　Encounter　Bay　tribes　of　South　Australia　the　repugnance　to　mentioning　the　names　of　those　who　have　died　lately　is　carried　so　far；　that　persons　who　bear　the　same　name　as　the　deceased　abandon　it；　and　either　adopt　temporary　names　or　are　known　by　any　others　that　happen　to　belong　to　them。　A　similar　custom　prevails　among　some　of　the　Queensland　tribes；　but　the　prohibition　to　use　the　names　of　the　dead　is　not　permanent；　though　it　may　last　for　many　years。　In　some　Australian　tribes　the　change　of　name　thus　brought　about　is　permanent；　the　old　name　is　laid　aside　for　ever；　and　the　man　is　known　by　his　new　name　for　the　rest　of　his　life；　or　at　least　until　he　is　obliged　to　change　it　again　for　a　like　reason。　Among　the　North　American　Indians　all　persons；　whether　men　or　women；　who　bore　the　name　of　one　who　had　just　died　were　obliged　to　abandon　it　and　to　adopt　other　names；　which　was　formally　done　at　the　first　ceremony　of　mourning　for　the　dead。　In　some　tribes　to　the　east　of　the　Rocky　Mountains　this　change　of　name　lasted　only　during　the　season　of　mourning；　but　in　other　tribes　on　the　Pacific　Coast　of　North　America　it　seems　to　have　been　permanent。

Sometimes　by　an　extension　of　the　same　reasoning　all　the　near　relations　of　the　deceased　change　their　names；　whatever　they　may　happen　to　be；　doubtless　fr