the story of mankind-第42部分

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fleet。



The　stories　about　a　mysterious　Spanish　fleet　that　was　to　conquer

both　Holland　and　England；　when　Protestant　Queen

Elizabeth　had　succeeded　Catholic　‘‘Bloody　Mary''　was　an　old

one。　For　years　the　sailors　of　the　waterfront　had　talked

about　it。　In　the　eighties　of　the　sixteenth　century；　the

rumour　took　a　definite　shape。　According　to　pilots　who　had

been　in　Lisbon；　all　the　Spanish　and　Portuguese　wharves　were

building　ships。　And　in　the　southern　Netherlands　（in　Belgium）

the　Duke　of　Parma　was　collecting　a　large　expeditionary

force　to　be　carried　from　Ostend　to　London　and　Amsterdam

as　soon　as　the　fleet　should　arrive。



In　the　year　1586　the　Great　Armada　set　sail　for　the　north。

But　the　harbours　of　the　Flemish　coast　were　blockaded　by　a

Dutch　fleet　and　the　Channel　was　guarded　by　the　English；　and

the　Spaniards；　accustomed　to　the　quieter　seas　of　the　south；　did

not　know　how　to　navigate　in　this　squally　and　bleak　northern

climate。　What　happened　to　the　Armada　once　it　was　attacked

by　ships　and　by　storms　I　need　not　tell　you。　A　few　ships；　by

sailing　around　Ireland；　escaped　to　tell　the　terrible　story　of

defeat。　The　others　perished　and　lie　at　the　bottom　of　the　North

Sea。



Turn　about　is　fair　play。　The　British　nod　the　Dutch　Prot…

estants　now　carried　the　war　into　the　territory　of　the　enemy。

Before　the　end　of　the　century；　Houtman；　with　the　help　of　a

booklet　written　by　Linschoten　（a　Hollander　who　had　been　in

the　Portuguese　service）；　had　at　last　discovered　the　route　to

the　Indies。　As　a　result　the　great　Dutch　East　India　Company

was　founded　and　a　systematic　war　upon　the　Portuguese　and

Spanish　colonies　in　Asia　and　Africa　was　begun　in　all　seriousness。



It　was　during　this　early　era　of　colonial　conquest　that　a

curious　lawsuit　was　fought　out　in　the　Dutch　courts。　Early　in

the　seventeenth　century　a　Dutch　Captain　by　the　name　of　van

Heemskerk；　a　man　who　had　made　himself　famous　as　the　head

of　an　expedition　which　had　tried　to　discover　the　North　Eastern

Passage　to　the　Indies　and　who　had　spent　a　winter　on　the　frozen

shores　of　the　island　of　Nova　Zembla；　had　captured　a　Portuguese

ship　in　the　straits　of　Malacca。　You　will　remember　that

the　Pope　had　divided　the　world　into　two　equal　shares；　one　of

which　had　been　given　to　the　Spaniards　and　the　other　to　the

Portuguese。　The　Portuguese　quite　naturally　regarded　the

water　which　surrounded　their　Indian　islands　as　part　of　their

own　property　and　since；　for　the　moment；　they　were　not　at　war

with　the　United　Seven　Netherlands；　they　claimed　that　the

captain　of　a　private　Dutch　trading　company　had　no　right　to

enter　their　private　domain　and　steal　their　ships。　And　they

brought　suit。　The　directors　of　the　Dutch　East　India　Company

hired　a　bright　young　lawyer；　by　the　name　of　De　Groot　or

Grotius；　to　defend　their　case。　He　made　the　astonishing　plea

that　the　ocean　is　free　to　all　comers。　Once　outside　the　distance

which　a　cannon　ball　fired　from　the　land　can　reach；　the　sea　is

or　（according　to　Grotius）　ought　to　be；　a　free　and　open　highway

to　all　the　ships　of　all　nations。　It　was　the　first　time　that　this

startling　doctrine　had　been　publicly　pronounced　in　a　court

of　law。　It　was　opposed　by　all　the　other　seafaring　people。　To

counteract　the　effect　of　Grotius'　famous　plea　for　the　‘‘Mare

Liberum；''　or　‘‘Open　Sea；''　John　Selden；　the　Englishman；

wrote　his　famous　treatise　upon　the　‘‘Mare　Clausum''　or　‘‘Closed

Sea''　which　treated　of　the　natural　right　of　a　sovereign　to　regard

the　seas　which　surrounded　his　country　as　belonging　to　his　territory。

I　mention　this　here　because　the　question　had　not　yet

been　decided　and　during　the　last　war　caused　all　sorts　of

difficulties　and　complications。



To　return　to　the　warfare　between　Spaniard　and　Hollander

and　Englishman；　before　twenty　years　were　over　the　most

valuable　colonies　of　the　Indies　and　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope　and

Ceylon　and　those　along　the　coast　of　China　and　even　Japan　were

in　Protestant　hands。　In　1621　a　West　Indian　Company　was

founded　which　conquered　Brazil　and　in　North　America　built

a　fortress　called　Nieuw　Amsterdam　at　the　mouth　of　the　river

which　Henry　Hudson　had　discovered　in　the　year　1609



These　new　colonies　enriched　both　England　and　the　Dutch

Republic　to　such　an　extent　that　they　could　hire　foreign　soldiers

to　do　their　fighting　on　land　while　they　devoted　themselves

to　commerce　and　trade。　To　them　the　Protestant　revolt　meant

independence　and　prosperity。　But　in　many　other　parts　of

Europe　it　meant　a　succession　of　horrors　compared　to　which　the

last　war　was　a　mild　excursion　of　kindly　Sunday…school　boys。



The　Thirty　Years　War　which　broke　out　in　the　year　1618

and　which　ended　with　the　famous　treaty　of　Westphalia　in　1648

was　the　perfectly　natural　result　of　a　century　of　ever　increasing

religious　hatred。　It　was；　as　I　have　said；　a　terrible　war。　Everybody

fought　everybody　else　and　the　struggle　ended　only　when

all　parties　had　been　thoroughly　exhausted　and　could　fight　no

longer。



In　less　than　a　generation　it　turned　many　parts　of　central

Europe　into　a　wilderness；　where　the　hungry　peasants　fought

for　the　carcass　of　a　dead　horse　with　the　even　hungrier　wolf。

Five…sixths　of　all　the　German　towns　and　villages　were　destroyed。

The　Palatinate；　in　western　Germany；　was　plundered

twenty…eight　times。　And　a　population　of　eighteen　million

people　was　reduced　to　four　million。



The　hostilities　began　almost　as　soon　as　Ferdinand　II　of

the　House　of　Habsburg　had　been　elected　Emperor。　He　was

the　product　of　a　most　careful　Jesuit　training　and　was　a　most

obedient　and　devout　son　of　the　Church。　The　vow　which　he　had

made　as　a　young　man；　that　he　would　eradicate　all　sects　and

all　heresies　from　his　domains；　Ferdinand　kept　to　the　best　of

his　ability。　Two　days　before　his　election；　his　chief　opponent；

Frederick；　the　Protestant　Elector　of　the　Palatinate　and　a

son…in…law　of　James　I　of　England；　had　been　made　King　of

Bohemia；　in　direct　violation　of　Ferdinand's　wishes。



At　once　the　Habsburg　armies　marched　into　Bohemia。　The

young　king　looked　in　vain　for　assistance　against　this　formidable

enemy。　The　Dutch　Republic　was　willing　to　help；　but；

engaged　in　a　desperate　war　of　its　own　with　the　Spanish　branch

of　the　Habsburgs；　it　could　do　little。　The　Stuarts　in　England

were　more　interested　in　strengthening　their　own　absolute　power

at　home　than　spending　money　and　men　upon　a　forlorn　adventure

in　far　away　Bohemia。　After　a　struggle　of　a　few　months；

the　Elector　of　the　Palatinate　was　driven　away　and　his　domains

were　given　to　the　Catholic　house　of　Bavaria。　This　was　the　beginning

of　the　great　war。



Then　the　Habsburg　armies；　under　Tilly　and　Wallenstein；

fought　their　way　through　the　Protestant　part　of　Germany

until　they　had　reached　the　shores　of　the　Baltic。　A　Catholic

neighbour　meant　serious　danger　to　the　Protestant　king　of

Denmark。　Christian　IV　tried　to　defend　himself　by　attacking

his　enemies　before　they　had　become　too　strong　for　him。　The

Danish　armies　marched　into　Germany　but　were　defeated。

Wallenstein　followed　up　his　victory　with　such　energy　and　violence

that　Denmark　was　forced　to　sue　for　peace。　Only　one

town　of　the　Baltic　then　remained　in　the　hands　of　the　Protestants。

That　was　Stralsund。



There；　in　the　early　summer　of　the　year　1630；　landed　King

Gustavus　Adolphus　of　the　house　of　Vasa；　king　of　Sweden；

and　famous　as　the　man　who　had　defended　his　country　against

the　Russians。　A　Protestant　prince　of　unlimited　ambition；

desirous　of　making　Sweden　the　centre　of　a　great　Northern

Empire；　Gustavus　Adolphus　was　welcomed　by　the　Protestant

princes　of　Europe　as　the　saviour　of　the　Lutheran　cause。　He

defeated　Tilly；　who　had　just　successfully　butchered　the　Protestant

inhabitants　of　Magdeburg。　Then　his　troops　began　their

great　march　through　the　heart　of　Germany　in　an　attempt　to

reach　the　Habsburg　possessions　in　Italy。　Threatened　in　the

rear　by　the　Catholics；　Gustavus　suddenly　veered　around　and

defeated　the　main　Habsburg　army　in　the　battle　of　Lutzen。

Unfortunately　the　Swedish　king　was　killed　when　he　strayed

away　from　his　troops。　But　the　Habsburg　power　had　been

broken。



Ferdinand；　who　was　a　suspicious　sort　of　person；　at　once

began　to　distrust　his　own　servants。　Wallenstein；　his　commander…

in…chief；　was　murdered　at　his　instigation。　When　the

Catholic　Bourbons；　who　ruled　France　and　hated　their　Habsburg

rivals；　heard　of　this；　they　joined　the　Protestant　Swedes。

The　armies　of　Louis　XIII　invaded　the　eastern　part　of　Germany；

and　Turenne　and　Conde　added　their　fame　to　that　of

Baner　and　Weimar；　the　Swedish　generals；　by　murdering；　pillaging

and　burning　Habsburg　property。　This　brought　great

fame　and　riches　to　the　Swedes　and　caused　the　Danes　to　become

envious。　The　Protestant　Danes　thereupon　declared　war　upon

the　Protestant　Swedes　who　were　the　allies　of　the　Catholic

French；　whose　political　leader；　the　Cardinal　de　Richelieu；　had

just　deprived　the　Huguenots　（or　French　Protestants）　of　those

rights　of　public　worship　which　the　Edict　of　Nantes　of　the　year

1598　had　guaranteed　them。



The　war；　after　the　habit　of　such　encounters；　did　not　decide

anything；　when　it　came　to　an　end　with　the　treaty　of　Westphalia

in　1648。　The　Catholic　powers　remained　Catholic　and

the　Protestant　powers　stayed　faithful　to　the　doctrines　of

Luther　and　Calvin　and　Zwingli。　The　Swiss　and　Dutch　Protestants

were　recognised　as　independent　republics。　France

kept　the　cities　of　Metz　and　Toul　and　Verdun　and　a　part　of　the

Alsace。　The　Holy　Roman　Empire　continued　to　exist　as　a　sort

of　scare…crow　state；　without　men；　without　money；　without　hope

and　without　courage。



The　only　good　the　Thirty　Years　War　accomplished　was　a

negative　one。　It　discouraged　both　Catholics　and　Protestants

from　ever　trying　it　again。　Henceforth　they　left　each　other　in

peace。　This　however　did　not　mean　that　religious　feeling　and

theological　hatred　had　been　removed　from　this　earth。　On　the

contrary。　The　quarrels　between　Catholic　and　Protestant

came　to　an　end；　but　the　disputes　betw