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Karl Marx
INTRODUCTION TO
A CONTRIBUTION TO A CRITIQUE OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Written between end of August and middle September 1857。
Marx intended this to be the Introduction to his
_Contribution to a Critique of Political Economy_ ��1859���察�
but�察�as his Preface to that work notes�察�he decided to
omit it。
The unfinished rough draft�察�which was found among Marx's
papers after his death。 First published 1903�察�in _Die
Neue Zeit_。 Would become the first manuscript in the
_Grundrisse_。
I。 PRODUCTION�察�CONSUMPTION�察�DISTRIBUTION�察�EXCHANGE ��CIRCULATION��
1。 Production
��a�� To begin with�察�the question under discussion is _material
production_。
Individuals producing in a society�察�and hence the socially determined
production of individuals�察�is of course the point of departure。 The
solitary and isolated hunter or fisherman�察�who serves Adam Smith and
Ricardo as a starting point�察�is one of the unimaginative fantasies of
18th century romances a la Robinson Crusoe�察�and despite the assertions
of social historians�察�these by no means signify simply a reaction
against over´refinement and reversion to a misconceived natural life。
No more is Rousseau's _contrat social_�察�which by means of a contract
establishes a relationship and connection between subjects that are by
nature independent�察�at all based on this kind of naturalism。 This is an
illusion and nothing but the aesthetic illusion of the small and big
Robinsonades。 It is�察�on the contrary�察�the anticipation of ;bourgeois
society;�察�which began to evolve in the 16th century and in the 18th
century made giant strides towards maturity。 The individual in this
society of free competition seems to be rid of the natural ties etc。
which made him an appurtenance of a particular�察�limited aggregation of
human beings in previous historical epochs。 The prophets of the 18th
century�察�on whose shoulders Adam Smith and Ricardo were still wholly
standing�察�envisaged this individual a product of the dissolution of
feudal society on the one hand and the productive forces evolved since
the 16th century on the other as an ideal whose existence belongs to
the past。 They saw this individual not as a historical result�察�but as
the starting´point of history�察�not as something evolving in the course
of history�察�but posited by nature�察�because for them this individual was
in conformity with nature�察�in keeping with their idea of human nature。
This delusion has been characteristic of every new epoch hitherto。
Steuart�察�who in some respects was in opposition to the 18th century�察�
and�察�as an aristocrat�察�tended rather to regard things from a historical
standpoint�察�avoided this naive view。
The further back we trace the course of history�察�the more does the
individual�察�and accordingly also the producing individual�察�appear to be
dependent and to belong to a larger whole。 At first�察�the individual in
a still quite natural manner is part of the family and of the tribe
which evolves from the family�察�later�察�he is part of a community�察�of one
of the different forms of community which arise from the conflict and
the merging of tribes。 It is not until the 18th century that�察�in the
bourgeois society�察�the various forms of the social texture confront the
individual as merely means toward his private ends�察�as external
necessity。 But the epoch which produces this standpoint�察�namely that of
the isolated individual�察�is precisely the epoch of the ��as yet�� most
highly´developed social ��according to this standpoint�察�general��
relations。 Man is a ;zoon politikon; ��social animal�А�in the most
literal sense�此�he is not only a social animal�察�but an animal that can
individualize himself only within society。 Production by an isolated
individual outside society a rare event�察�which might occur when a
civilized person who has already absorbed the dynamic social forces is
accidentally cast into the wilderness is just as preposterous as the
development of speech without individuals who live _together_ and talk
to one another。 It is unnecessary to dwell upon this point further。 It
need not have been mentioned at all�察�if this inanity�察�which had rhyme
and reason in the works of 18th century writers�察�were not expressly
introduced once more into modern political economy by Bastiat�察�Carey�察�
Proudhon�察�etc。 It is of course very pleasant for Proudhon�察�for
instance�察�to be able to explain the origin of an economic relationship
whose historical evolution he does not know in an
historico´philosophical manner by means of mythology�察�alleging that Adam
or Prometheus hit upon the ready´made idea�察�which was then put into
practice�察�etc。 Nothing is more tedious and dull than the commonplace
phantasies of _locus communis_。
Thus�察�when we speak of production�察�we always have in mind production at
a definite stage of social development of production by individuals
in a society。 It might therefore seems that�察�in order to speak of
production at all�察�we must either trace the various phases in the
historical process of development�察�or else declare from the very
beginning that we are examining _one_ particular historical period�察�as
for instance modern bourgeois production�察�which is�察�indeed�察�our real
subject matter。 All periods of production�察�however�察�have certain
features in common�察�they have certain common categories。 _Production in
general_ is an abstraction�察�but a sensible abstraction in so far as it
actually emphasizes and defines the common aspects and thus avoids
repetition。 Yet this _general_ concept�察�or the common aspect which has
been brought to light by comparison�察�is itself a multifarious compound
comprising divergent categories。 Some elements are found in all epochs�察�
others are common to a few epochs。 The most modern period and the most
ancient period will have ��certain�А�categories in common。 Production
without them is inconceivable。 But�察�although the most highly´developed
languages have laws and categories in common with the most primitive
languages�察�it is precisely their divergence from these general and
common features which constitutes their development。 It is necessary to
distinguish these definitions which apply to production in general�察�in
order not to overlook the essential differences existing despite the
unity that follows from the very fact that the subject ��mankind�� and
object ��nature�� are the same。 For instance�察�on failure to perceive this
fact depends the entire wisdom of modern economists who prove the
eternity and harmony of existing social relations。 For example�察�no
production is possible without an instrument of production�察�even if this
instrument is simply the hand。 It is not possible without past�察�
accumulated labor�察�even if this labor is only the skill acquired by
repeated practice and concentrated in the hand of a savage。 Capital is�察�
among other things�察�also an instrument of instrument of production�察�and
also past�察�materialized labor。 Consequently�察�capital is a universal and
eternal relation given by nature that is�察�provided one omits
precisely those specific factors which turn the ;instrument of
production; or ;accumulated labor; into capital。 The whole history of
the relations of production thus appears�察�for instance in Carey's
writings�察�as a falsification malevolently brought about by government。
Just as there is no production in general�察�so there is also no general
production。 Production is always a particular branch of production
e。g。 agriculture�察�cattle´breeding�察�manufacture or it is the
_totality_ of production。 Political economy�察�however�察�is not
technology。 The relations of the general categories of production at a
given social stage to the particular forms of production is to be set
forth elsewhere ��later��。
Finally�察�not only is production _particular_ production�察�but it is
invariably only a definite social corpus�察�a social subject�察�that is
engaged in a wider or narrower totality of production spheres。 The
relation of academic presentation to the actual process does not belong
here either。 Production in general Particular branches of production。
Totality of production。
It is fashionable to preface economic works with a general part and
it is just this which appears under the heading ;Production;�察�see for
instance John Stuart Mill which deals with the general conditions of
all production。 This general part comprises or purports to comprise�此�
1。 The conditions without which production cannot be carried on。
This means�察�in fact�察�only that the essential factors required for
any kind of production are indicated。 But this amounts actually�察�
as we shall see�察�to a few very simple definitions�察�which become
reduced to trivial tautologies。
2。 The conditions which promote production to a larger or smaller
degree�察�as in the case of Adam Smith's progressive and stagnant
state of society。
To give this�察�which in Smith's work has its value as an _apercu_�察�
to give it scientific significance�察�research into the _degree of
productivity_ at various periods in the development of individual
nations would have to be conducted�察�strictly speaking�察�such an
investigation lies outside the framework of the subject。 Those
aspects which are however relevant to it ought to be mentioned in
connection with the development of competition�察�accumulation�察�etc。
The answer in its general form amounts to the general statement
that an industrial nation achieves its highest productivity which
it is altogether at the height of its historical development。 ��In
fact�察�a nation is at the height of its historical development so
long as�察�not the gain�察�but gaining remains its principal aim。 In
this respect�察�the Yankees are sup