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                                Karl Marx 
 
                             INTRODUCTION TO  
             A CONTRIBUTION TO A CRITIQUE OF POLITICAL ECONOMY 
 
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 
 
          Written between end of August and middle September 1857。 
 
          Marx intended this to be the Introduction to his  
          _Contribution to a Critique of Political Economy_ ��1859���察�
          but�察�as his Preface to that work notes�察�he decided to  
          omit it。 
 
          The unfinished rough draft�察�which was found among Marx's 
          papers after his death。  First published 1903�察�in _Die  
          Neue Zeit_。  Would become the first manuscript in the 
          _Grundrisse_。  
 
 
    I。 PRODUCTION�察�CONSUMPTION�察�DISTRIBUTION�察�EXCHANGE ��CIRCULATION�� 
 
 
                              1。 Production 
 
��a�� To begin with�察�the question under discussion is _material 
production_。   
 
Individuals producing in a society�察�and hence the socially determined 
production of individuals�察�is of course the point of departure。  The 
solitary and isolated hunter or fisherman�察�who serves Adam Smith and 
Ricardo as a starting point�察�is one of the unimaginative fantasies of 
18th century romances a la Robinson Crusoe�察�and despite the assertions 
of social historians�察�these by no means signify simply a reaction 
against over´refinement and reversion to a misconceived natural life。  
No more is Rousseau's _contrat social_�察�which by means of a contract 
establishes a relationship and connection between subjects that are by 
nature independent�察�at all based on this kind of naturalism。  This is an 
illusion and nothing but the aesthetic illusion of the small and big 
Robinsonades。  It is�察�on the contrary�察�the anticipation of ;bourgeois 
society;�察�which began to evolve in the 16th century and in the 18th 
century made giant strides towards maturity。  The individual in this 
society of free competition seems to be rid of the natural ties etc。  
which made him an appurtenance of a particular�察�limited aggregation of 
human beings in previous historical epochs。  The prophets of the 18th 
century�察�on whose shoulders Adam Smith and Ricardo were still wholly 
standing�察�envisaged this individual  a product of the dissolution of 
feudal society on the one hand and the productive forces evolved since 
the 16th century on the other  as an ideal whose existence belongs to 
the past。  They saw this individual not as a historical result�察�but as 
the starting´point of history�察�not as something evolving in the course 
of history�察�but posited by nature�察�because for them this individual was 
in conformity with nature�察�in keeping with their idea of human nature。  
This delusion has been characteristic of every new epoch hitherto。  
Steuart�察�who in some respects was in opposition to the 18th century�察�
and�察�as an aristocrat�察�tended rather to regard things from a historical 
standpoint�察�avoided this naive view。  
 
The further back we trace the course of history�察�the more does the 
individual�察�and accordingly also the producing individual�察�appear to be 
dependent and to belong to a larger whole。  At first�察�the individual in 
a still quite natural manner is part of the family and of the tribe 
which evolves from the family�察�later�察�he is part of a community�察�of one 
of the different forms of community which arise from the conflict and 
the merging of tribes。  It is not until the 18th century that�察�in the 
bourgeois society�察�the various forms of the social texture confront the 
individual as merely means toward his private ends�察�as external 
necessity。  But the epoch which produces this standpoint�察�namely that of 
the isolated individual�察�is precisely the epoch of the ��as yet�� most 
highly´developed social ��according to this standpoint�察�general�� 
relations。  Man is a ;zoon politikon; ��social animal�А�in the most 
literal sense�此�he is not only a social animal�察�but an animal that can 
individualize himself only within society。  Production by an isolated 
individual outside society  a rare event�察�which might occur when a 
civilized person who has already absorbed the dynamic social forces is 
accidentally cast into the wilderness  is just as preposterous as the 
development of speech without individuals who live _together_ and talk 
to one another。  It is unnecessary to dwell upon this point further。  It 
need not have been mentioned at all�察�if this inanity�察�which had rhyme 
and reason in the works of 18th century writers�察�were not expressly 
introduced once more into modern political economy by Bastiat�察�Carey�察�
Proudhon�察�etc。  It is of course very pleasant for Proudhon�察�for 
instance�察�to be able to explain the origin of an economic relationship 
 whose historical evolution he does not know  in an 
historico´philosophical manner by means of mythology�察�alleging that Adam 
or Prometheus hit upon the ready´made idea�察�which was then put into 
practice�察�etc。  Nothing is more tedious and dull than the commonplace 
phantasies of _locus communis_。  
 
Thus�察�when we speak of production�察�we always have in mind production at 
a definite stage of social development  of production by individuals 
in a society。  It might therefore seems that�察�in order to speak of 
production at all�察�we must either trace the various phases in the 
historical process of development�察�or else declare from the very 
beginning that we are examining _one_ particular historical period�察�as 
for instance modern bourgeois production�察�which is�察�indeed�察�our real 
subject matter。  All periods of production�察�however�察�have certain 
features in common�察�they have certain common categories。  _Production in 
general_ is an abstraction�察�but a sensible abstraction in so far as it 
actually emphasizes and defines the common aspects and thus avoids 
repetition。  Yet this _general_ concept�察�or the common aspect which has 
been brought to light by comparison�察�is itself a multifarious compound 
comprising divergent categories。  Some elements are found in all epochs�察�
others are common to a few epochs。  The most modern period and the most 
ancient period will have ��certain�А�categories in common。  Production 
without them is inconceivable。  But�察�although the most highly´developed 
languages have laws and categories in common with the most primitive 
languages�察�it is precisely their divergence from these general and 
common features which constitutes their development。  It is necessary to 
distinguish these definitions which apply to production in general�察�in 
order not to overlook the essential differences existing despite the 
unity that follows from the very fact that the subject ��mankind�� and 
object ��nature�� are the same。  For instance�察�on failure to perceive this 
fact depends the entire wisdom of modern economists who prove the 
eternity and harmony of existing social relations。  For example�察�no 
production is possible without an instrument of production�察�even if this 
instrument is simply the hand。  It is not possible without past�察�
accumulated labor�察�even if this labor is only the skill acquired by 
repeated practice and concentrated in the hand of a savage。  Capital is�察�
among other things�察�also an instrument of instrument of production�察�and 
also past�察�materialized labor。  Consequently�察�capital is a universal and 
eternal relation given by nature  that is�察�provided one omits 
precisely those specific factors which turn the ;instrument of 
production; or ;accumulated labor; into capital。  The whole history of 
the relations of production thus appears�察�for instance in Carey's 
writings�察�as a falsification malevolently brought about by government。  
 
Just as there is no production in general�察�so there is also no general 
production。  Production is always a particular branch of production  
e。g。  agriculture�察�cattle´breeding�察�manufacture  or it is the 
_totality_ of production。  Political economy�察�however�察�is not 
technology。  The relations of the general categories of production at a 
given social stage to the particular forms of production is to be set 
forth elsewhere ��later��。  
 
Finally�察�not only is production _particular_ production�察�but it is 
invariably only a definite social corpus�察�a social subject�察�that is 
engaged in a wider or narrower totality of production spheres。  The 
relation of academic presentation to the actual process does not belong 
here either。  Production in general Particular branches of production。  
Totality of production。  
 
It is fashionable to preface economic works with a general part  and 
it is just this which appears under the heading ;Production;�察�see for 
instance John Stuart Mill  which deals with the general conditions of 
all production。  This general part comprises or purports to comprise�此�
 
  1。  The conditions without which production cannot be carried on。  
      This means�察�in fact�察�only that the essential factors required for 
      any kind of production are indicated。  But this amounts actually�察�
      as we shall see�察�to a few very simple definitions�察�which become 
      reduced to trivial tautologies。  
 
  2。  The conditions which promote production to a larger or smaller 
      degree�察�as in the case of Adam Smith's progressive and stagnant 
      state of society。  
 
      To give this�察�which in Smith's work has its value as an _apercu_�察�
      to give it scientific significance�察�research into the _degree of 
      productivity_ at various periods in the development of individual 
      nations would have to be conducted�察�strictly speaking�察�such an 
      investigation lies outside the framework of the subject。  Those 
      aspects which are however relevant to it ought to be mentioned in 
      connection with the development of competition�察�accumulation�察�etc。  
 
      The answer in its general form amounts to the general statement 
      that an industrial nation achieves its highest productivity which 
      it is altogether at the height of its historical development。  ��In 
      fact�察�a nation is at the height of its historical development so 
      long as�察�not the gain�察�but gaining remains its principal aim。  In 
      this respect�察�the Yankees are sup

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