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e　has　been　no　such　necessity　and　there　is　no　such　result。　　The　founders　of　cities　have　had　the　experience　of　the　world　before　them。　　They　have　known　of　sanitary　laws　as　they　began。　　That　sewerage；　and　water；　and　gas；　and　good　air　would　be　needed　for　a　thriving　community　has　been　to　them　as　much　a　matter　of　fact　as　are　the　well…understood　combinations　between　timber　and　nails；　and　bricks　and　mortar。　　They　have　known　that　water　carriage　is　almost　a　necessity　for　commercial　success；　and　have　chosen　their　sites　accordingly。　　Broad　streets　cost　as　little；　while　land　by　the　foot　is　not　as　yet　of　value　to　be　regarded；　as　those　which　are　narrow；　and　therefore　the　sites　of　towns　have　been　prepared　with　noble　avenues　and　imposing　streets。　A　city　at　its　commencement　is　laid　out　with　an　intention　that　it　shall　be　populous。　　The　houses　are　not　all　built　at　once；　but　there　are　the　places　allocated　for　them。　　The　streets　are　not　made；　but　there　are　the　spaces。　　Many　an　abortive　attempt　at　municipal　greatness　has　so　been　made　and　then　all　but　abandoned。　　There　are　wretched　villages；　with　huge；　straggling　parallel　ways；　which　will　never　grow　into　towns。　　They　are　the　failuresfailures　in　which　the　pioneers　of　civilization；　frontier　men　as　they　call　themselves；　have　lost　their　tens　of　thousands　of　dollars。　　But　when　the　success　comes；　when　the　happy　hit　has　been　made；　and　the　ways　of　commerce　have　been　truly　foreseen　with　a　cunning　eye；　then　a　great　and　prosperous　city　springs　up；　ready　made　as　it　were；　from　the　earth。　Such　a　town　is　Milwaukee；　now　containing　45；000　inhabitants；　but　with　room　apparently　for　double　that　number；　with　room　for　four　times　that　number；　were　men　packed　as　closely　there　as　they　are　with　us。　In　the　principal　business　streets　of　all　these　towns　one　sees　vast　buildings。　　They　are　usually　called　blocks；　and　are　often　so　denominated　in　large　letters　on　their　front；　as　Portland　Block；　Devereux　Block；　Buel's　Block。　　Such　a　block　may　face　to　two；　three；　or　even　four　streets；　and；　as　I　presume；　has　generally　been　a　matter　of　one　special　speculation。　　It　may　be　divided　into　separate　houses；　or　kept　for　a　single　purpose；　such　as　that　of　a　hotel；　or　grouped　into　shops　below；　and　into　various　sets　of　chambers　above。　I　have　had　occasion　in　various　towns　to　mount　the　stairs　within　these　blocks；　and　have　generally　found　some　portion　of　them　vacant　have　sometimes　found　the　greater　portion　of　them　vacant。　　Men　build　on　an　enormous　scale；　three　times；　ten　times　as　much　as　is　wanted。　　The　only　measure　of　size　is　an　increase　on　what　men　have　built　before。　　Monroe　P。　Jones；　the　speculator；　is　very　probably　ruined；　and　then　begins　the　world　again　nothing　daunted。　　But　Jones's　block　remains；　and　gives　to　the　city　in　its　aggregate　a　certain　amount　of　wealth。　　Or　the　block　becomes　at　once　of　service　and　finds　tenants。　　In　which　case　Jones　probably　sells　it；　and　immediately　builds　two　others　twice　as　big。　　That　Monroe　P。　Jones　will　encounter　ruin　is　almost　a　matter　of　course；　but　then　he　is　none　the　worse　for　being　ruined。　　It　hardly　makes　him　unhappy。　　He　is　greedy　of　dollars　with　a　terrible　covetousness；　but　he　is　greedy　in　order　that　he　may　speculate　more　widely。　　He　would　sooner　have　built　Jones's　tenth　block；　with　a　prospect　of　completing　a　twentieth；　than　settle　himself　down　at　rest　for　life　as　the　owner　of　a　Chatsworth　or　a　Woburn。　　As　for　his　children；　he　has　no　desire　of　leaving　them　money。　　Let　the　girls　marry。　　And　for　the　boysfor　them　it　will　be　good　to　begin　as　he　begun。　　If　they　cannot　build　blocks　for　themselves；　let　them　earn　their　bread　in　the　blocks　of　other　men。　　So　Monroe　P。　Jones；　with　his　million　of　dollars　accomplished；　advances　on　to　a　new　frontier；　goes　to　work　again　on　a　new　city；　and　loses　it　all。　　As　an　individual　I　differ　very　much　from　Monroe　P。　Jones。　　The　first　block　accomplished；　with　an　adequate　rent　accruing　to　me　as　the　builder；　I　fancy　that　I　should　never　try　a　second。　　But　Jones　is　undoubtedly　the　man　for　the　West。　It　is　that　love　of　money　to　come；　joined　to　a　strong　disregard　for　money　made；　which　constitutes　the　vigorous　frontier　mind；　the　true　pioneering　organization。　　Monroe　P。　Jones　would　be　a　great　man　to　all　posterity　if　only　he　had　a　poet　to　sing　of　his　valor。　It　may　be　imagined　how　large　in　proportion　to　its　inhabitants　will　be　a　town　which　spreads　itself　in　this　way。　　There　are　great　houses　left　untenanted；　and　great　gaps　left　unfilled。　　But　if　the　place　be　successful；　if　it　promise　success；　it　will　be　seen　at　once　that　there　is　life　all　through　it。　　Omnibuses；　or　street　cars　working　on　rails；　run　hither　and　thither。　　The　shops　that　have　been　opened　are　well　filled。　　The　great　hotels　are　thronged。　　The　quays　are　crowded　with　vessels；　and　a　general　feeling　of　progress　pervades　the　place。　It　is　easy　to　perceive　whether　or　no　an　American　town　is　going　ahead。　　The　days　of　my　visit　to　Milwaukee　were　days　of　civil　war　and　national　trouble；　but　in　spite　of　civil　war　and　national　trouble　Milwaukee　looked　healthy。　I　have　said　that　there　was　but　little　povertylittle　to　be　seen　of　real　want　in　these　thriving　townsbut　that　they　who　labored　in　them　had　nevertheless　their　own　hardships。　　This　is　so。　　I　would　not　have　any　man　believe　that　he　can　take　himself　to　the　Western　States　of　Americato　those　States　of　which　I　am　now　speaking　Michigan；　Wisconsin；　Minnesota；　Iowa；　or　Illinois；　and　there　by　industry　escape　the　ills　to　which　flesh　is　heir。　　The　laboring　Irish　in　these　towns　eat　meat　seven　days　a　week；　but　I　have　met　many　a　laboring　Irishman　among　them　who　has　wished　himself　back　in　his　old　cabin。　　Industry　is　a　good　thing；　and　there　is　no　bread　so　sweet　as　that　which　is　eaten　in　the　sweat　of　a　man's　brow；　but　labor　carried　to　excess　wearies　the　mind　as　well　as　body；　and　the　sweat　that　is　ever　running　makes　the　bread　bitter。　　There　is；　I　think；　no　task…master　over　free　labor　so　exacting　as　an　American。　He　knows　nothing　of　hours；　and　seems　to　have　that　idea　of　a　man　which　a　lady　always　has　of　a　horse。　　He　thinks　that　he　will　go　forever。　　I　wish　those　masons　in　London　who　strike　for　nine　hours'　work　with　ten　hours'　pay　could　be　driven　to　the　labor　market　of　Western　America　for　a　spell。　　And　moreover；　which　astonished　me；　I　have　seen　men　driven　and　hurried；　as　it　were　forced　forward　at　their　work；　in　a　manner　which；　to　an　English　workman；　would　be　intolerable。　　This　surprised　me　much；　as　it　was　at　variance　with　ouror　perhaps　I　should　say　with　mypreconceived　ideas　as　to　American　freedom。　　I　had　fancied　that　an　American　citizen　would　not　submit　to　be　driven；　that　the　spirit　of　the　country；　if　not　the　spirit　of　the　individual；　would　have　made　it　impossible。　　I　thought　that　the　shoe　would　have　pinched　quite　on　the　other　foot。　　But　I　found　that　such　driving　did　exist；　and　American　masters　in　the　West　with　whom　I　had　an　opportunity　of　discussing　the　subject　all　admitted　it。　　〃Those　men'll　never　half　move　unless　they're　driven；〃　a　foreman　said　to　me　once　as　we　stood　together　over　some　twenty　men　who　were　at　their　work。　　〃They　kinder　look　for　it；　and　don't　well　know　how　to　get　along　when　they　miss　it。〃　　It　was　not　his　business　at　this　moment　to　drivenor　was　he　driving。　　He　was　standing　at　some　little　distance　from　the　scene　with　me；　and　speculating　on　the　sight　before　him。　　I　thought　the　men　were　working　at　their　best；　but　their　movements　did　not　satisfy　his　practiced　eye；　and　he　saw　at　a　glance　that　there　was　no　one　immediately　over　them。　But　there　is　worse　even　than　this。　　Wages　in　these　regions　are　what　we　should　call　high。　　An　agricultural　laborer　will　earn　perhaps　fifteen　dollars　a　month　and　his　board；　and　a　town　laborer　will　earn　a　dollar　a　day。　　A　dollar　may　be　taken　as　representing　four　shillings；　though　it　is　in　fact　more。　　Food　in　these　parts　is　much　cheaper　than　in　England；　and　therefore　the　wages　must　be　considered　as　very　good。　　In　making；　however；　a　just　calculation　it　must　be　borne　in　mind　that　clothing　is　dearer　than　in　England；　and　that　much　more　of　it　is　necessary。　　The　wages　nevertheless　are　high；　and　will　enable　the　laborer　to　save　money；　if　only　he　can　get　them　paid。　　The　complaint　that　wages　are　held　back；　and　not　even　ultimately　paid；　is　very　common。　　There　is　no　fixed　rule　for　satisfying　all　such　claims　once　a　week；　and　thus　debts　to　laborers　are　contracted；　and　when　contracted　are　ignored。　　With　us　there　is　a　feeling　that　it　is　pitiful；　mean　almost　beyond　expression；　to　wrong　a　laborer　of　his　hire。　　We　have　men　who　go　in　debt　to　tradesmen　perhaps　without　a　thought　of　paying　them；　but　when　we　speak　of　such　a　one　who　has　descended　into　the　lowest　mire　of　insolvency；　we　say　that　he　has　not　paid　his　washerwoman。　　Out　there　in　the　West　the　washerwoman　is　as　fair　game　as　the　tailor；　the　domestic　servant　as　the　wine　merchant。　　If　a　man　be　honest　he　will　not　willingly　take　either　goods　or　labor　without　payment；　and　it　may　be　hard　to　prove　that　he　who　takes　the　latter　is　more　dishonest　than　he　who　takes　the　former；　but　with　us　there　is　a　prejudice　in　favor　of　one's　washerwoman　by　which　the　Western　mind　is　not　weakened。　　〃They　certainly　have　to　be　smart　to　get　it；〃　a　gentleman　said　to　me　whom　I　had　taxed　on　the　subject。　　〃You　see；　on　the　frontier　a　man　is　bound　to　be　smart。　　If　he　aint　smart；　he'd　better　go　back　East；　perhaps　as　far　as　Europe；　he'll　do　there。〃　　I　had　got　my　answer；　and　my　friend　had　turned　the　question；　but　the　fact　was　admitted　by　him；　as　it　had　been　by　many　others。　Why　this　should　be　so　is　a　question　to　answer　which　thoroughly　would　require　a　volume　in　itself。　　As　to　the　driving；　why　should　men　submit　to　it；　seeing　that　labor　is　abundant；　and　that　in　all　newly…settled　countries　the　laborer　is　the　true　hero　of　the　age？　In　answer　to　this　is　to　be　alleged　the　fact　that　hired　labor　is　chiefly　done　by　fresh　comers；　by　Irish　and　Germans；　who　have　not　as　yet　among　them　any　combination　sufficient　to　protect　them　from　such　usage。　　The　men　over　them　are　new　as　masters；　masters　who　are　rough　themselves；　who　themselves　have　been　roughly　driven；　and　who　have　not　learned　to　be　gracious　to　those　below　them。　　It　is　a　part　of　their　contract　that　very　hard　work　shall　be　exacted；　and　the　driving　resolves　itself　into　this：　that　the　master；　looking　after　his　own　interest；　is　constantly　accusing　his　laborer　of　a　breach　of　his