the psychology of revolution-第38部分

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walk。　　We　see　him　as　president　of　the　Jacobin　Club；　president　of

the　Convention；　and　member　of　the　Committee　of　Public　Safety；　he

drags　the　Girondists　to　the　scaffold：　he　drags　the　queen　thither；

and　his　former　patron；　Danton；　said　of　him；　‘Billaud　has　a　dagger

under　his　tongue。'　　He　approves　of　the　cannonades　at　Lyons；　the

drownings　at　Nantes；　the　massacres　at　Arras；　he　organises　the

pitiless　commission　of　Orange；　he　is　concerned　in　the　laws　of

Prairial；　he　eggs　on　Fouquier…Tinville；　on　all　decrees　of　death

is　his　name；　often　the　first；　he　signs　before　his　colleagues；　he

is　without　pity；　without　emotion；　without　enthusiasm；　when　others

are　frightened；　hesitate；　and　draw　back；　he　goes　his　way；

speaking　in　turgid　sentences；　‘shaking　his　lion's　mane'for　to

make　his　cold　and　impassive　face　more　in　harmony　with　the

exuberance　that　surrounds　him　he　now　decks　himself　in　a　yellow

wig　which　would　make　one　laugh　were　it　on　any　but　the　sinister

head　of　Billaud…Varenne。　　When　Robespierre；　Saint…Just；　and

Couthon　are　threatened　in　turn；　he　deserts　them　and　goes　over　to

the　enemy；　and　pushes　them　under　the　knife。　。　。　。　　Why？　　What　is

his　aim？　　No　one　knows；　he　is　not　in　any　way　ambitious；　he

desires　neither　power　nor　money。''



I　do　not　think　it　would　be　difficult　to　answer　why。　　The　thirst

for　blood；　of　which　we　have　already　spoken；　and　which　is　very

common　among　certain　criminals；　perfectly　explains　the

conduct　of　Billaud…Varennes。　　Bandits　of　this　type　kill　for　the

sake　of　killing；　as　sportsmen　shoot　gamefor　the　very　pleasure

of　exercising　their　taste　for　destruction。　　In　ordinary　times　men

endowed　with　these　homicidal　tendencies　refrain；　generally　from

fear　of　the　policeman　and　the　scaffold。　　When　they　are　able　to

give　them　free　vent　nothing　can　stop　them。　　Such　was　the　case

with　Billaud…Varenne　and　many　others。



The　psychology　of　Marat　is　rather　more　complicated；　not　only

because　his　craving　for　murder　was　combined　with　other　elements

wounded　self…love；　ambition；　mystic　beliefs；　&c。but　also

because　we　must　regard　him　as　a　semi…lunatic；　affected　by

megalomania；　and　haunted　by　fixed　ideas。



Before　the　Revolution　he　had　advanced　great　scientific

pretensions；　but　no　one　attached　much　importance　to　his

maunderings。　　Dreaming　of　place　and　honour；　he　had　only　obtained

a　very　subordinate　situation　in　the　household　of　a　great　noble。　

The　Revolution　opened　up　an　unhoped…for　future。　　Swollen　with

hatred　of　the　old　social　system　which　had　not　recognised　his

merits；　he　put　himself　at　the　head　of　the　most　violent　section　of

the　people。　　Having　publicly　glorified　the　massacres　of

September；　he　founded　a　journal　which　denounced　everybody　and

clamoured　incessantly　for　executions。



Speaking　continually　of　the　interests　of　the　people；　Marat　became

their　idol。　　The　majority　of　his　colleagues　heartily　despised

him。　　Had　he　escaped　the　knife　of　Charlotte　Corday；　he　certainly

would　not　have　escaped　that　of　the　guillotine。





5。　　The　Destiny　of　those　Members　of　the　Convention　who　survived

the　Revolution。





Beside　the　members　of　the　Convention　whose　psychology　presents

particular　characteristics　there　were　othersBarras；　Fouche；

Tallien；　Merlin　de　Thionville；　&c。completely　devoid　of

principles　or　belief；　who　only　sought　to　enrich　themselves。



They　sought　to　build　up　enormous　fortunes　out　of　the　public

misery。　　In　ordinary　times　they　would　have　been　qualified　as

simple　scoundrels；　but　in　periods　of　revolution　all　standards

of　vice　and　virtue　seem　to　disappear。



Although　a　few　Jacobins　remained　fanatics；　the　majority　renounced

their　convictions　as　soon　as　they　had　obtained　riches；　and　became

the　faithful　courtiers　of　Napoleon。　　Cambaceres；　who；　on

addressing　Louis　XVI。　in　prison；　called　him　Louis　Capet；　under

the　Empire　required　his　friends　to　call　him　‘‘Highness''　in

public　and　‘‘Monseigneur''　in　private；　thus　displaying　the

envious　feeling　which　accompanied　the　craving　for　equality　in

many　of　the　Jacobins。



‘‘The　majority　of　the　Jacobins；''　writes　M。　Madelin　‘‘were

greatly　enriched；　and　like　Chabot；　Bazire；　Merlin；　Barras；

Boursault；　Tallien；　Barrere；　&c。；　possessed　chateaux　and

estates。　　Those　who　were　not　wealthy　as　yet　were　soon　to　become

so。　。　。　　In　the　Committee　of　the　year　III。　alone　the　staff　of　the

Thermidorian　party　comprised　a　future　prince；　13　future　counts；　5

future　barons；　7　future　senators　of　the　Empire；　and　6　future

Councillors　of　State；　and　beside　them　in　the　Convention　there

were；　between　the　future　Duke　of　Otranto　to　the　future　Count

Regnault；　no　less　than　50　democrats　who　fifteen　years

later　possessed　titles；　coats　of　arms；　plumes；　carriages；

endowments；　entailed　estates；　hotels；　and　chateaux。　

Fouche　died　worth　L600；000。''



The　privileges　of　the　ancien　regime　which　had　been　so

bitterly　decried　were　thus　very　soon　re…established　for　the

benefit　of　the　bourgeoisie。　　To　arrive　at　this　result　it　was

necessary　to　ruin　France；　to　burn　entire　provinces；　to　multiply

suffering；　to　plunge　innumerable　families　into　despair；　to

overturn　Europe；　and　to　destroy　men　by　the　hundred　thousand　on

the　field　of　battle。



In　closing　this　chapter　we　will　recall　what　we　have　already　said

concerning　the　possibility　of　judging　the　men　of　this　period。



Although　the　moralist　is　forced　to　deal　severely　with　certain

individuals；　because　he　judges　them　by　the　types　which　society

must　respect　if　it　is　to　succeed　in　maintaining　itself；　the

psychologist　is　not　in　the　same　case。　　His　aim　is　to　understand；

and　criticism　vanishes　before　a　complete　comprehension。



The　human　mind　is　a　very　fragile　mechanism；　and　the　marionettes

which　dance　upon　the　stage　of　history　are　rarely　able　to　resist

the　imperious　forces　which　impel　them。　　Heredity；　environment；

and　circumstances　are　imperious　masters。　　No　one　can　say　with

certainty　what　would　have　been　his　conduct　in　the　place　of　the

men　whose　actions　he　endeavours　to　interpret。







BOOK　III



THE　CONFLICT　BETWEEN　ANCESTRAL　INFLUENCES　AND　REVOLUTIONARY

PRINCIPLES



CHAPTER　I



THE　LAST　CONVULSIONS　OF　ANARCHYTHE　DIRECTORY



1。　　The　Psychology　of　the　Directory。



As　the　various　revolutionary　assemblies　were　composed　in　part　of

the　same　men；　one　might　suppose　that　their　psychology　would　be

very　similar。



At　ordinary　periods　this　would　have　been　so；　for　a　constant

environment　means　constancy　of　character。　　But　when　circumstances

change　as　rapidly　as　they　did　under　the　Revolution；　character

must　perforce　transform　itself　to　adapt　itself　thereto。　　Such　was

the　case　with　the　Directory。



The　Directory　comprised　several　distinct　assemblies：　two　large

chambers；　consisting　of　different　categories　of　deputies；　and　one

very　small　chamber；　which　consisted　of　the　five　Directors。



The　two　larger　Assemblies　remind　one　strongly　of　the　Convention

by　their　weakness。　　They　were　no　longer　forced　to　obey　popular

riots；　as　these　were　energetically　prevented　by　the　Directors；

but　they　yielded　without　discussion　to　the　dictatorial

injunctions　of　the　latter。



The　first　deputies　to　be　elected　were　mostly　moderates。　　Everyone

was　weary　of　the　Jacobin　tyranny。　　The　new　Assembly　dreamed　of

rebuilding　the　ruins　with　which　France　was　covered；　and

establishing　a　liberal　government　without　violence。



But　by　one　of　those　fatalities　which　were　a　law　of　the

Revolution；　and　which　prove　that　the　course　of　events　is　often

superior　to　men's　wills；　these　deputies；　like　their　predecessors；

may　be　said　always　to　have　done　the　contrary　of　what　they　wished

to　do。　　They　hoped　to　be　moderate；　and　they　were　violent；　they

wanted　to　eliminate　the　influence　of　the　Jacobins；　and　they

allowed　themselves　to　be　led　by　them；　they　thought　to　repair　the

ruins　of　the　country　and　they　succeeded　only　in　adding　others　to

them；　they　aspired　to　religious　peace；　and　they　finally

persecuted　and　massacred　the　priests　with　greater　rigour　than

during　the　Terror。



The　psychology　of　the　little　assembly　formed　by　the　five

Directors　was　very　different　from　that　of　the　Chamber　of

Deputies。　　Encountering　fresh　difficulties　daily；　the　directors

were　forced　to　resolve　them；　while　the　large　Assemblies；　without

contact　with　realities；　had　only　their　aspirations。



The　prevailing　thought　of　the　Directors　was　very　simple。　　Highly

indifferent　to　principles；　they　wished　above　all　to　remain　the

masters　of　France。　　To　attain　that　result　they　did　not　shrink

from　resorting　to　the　most　illegitimate　measures；　even　annulling

the　elections　of　a　great　number　of　the　departments　when　these

embarrassed　them。



Feeling　themselves　incapable　of　reorganising　France；　they　left

her　to　herself。　　By　their　despotism　they　contrived　to　dominate

her；　but　they　never　governed　her。　　Now；　what　France　needed　more

than　anything　at　this　juncture　was　to　be　governed。



The　convention　has　left　behind　it　the　reputation　of　a　strong

Government；　and　the　Directory　that　of　a　weak　Government。　　The

contrary　is　true：　it　was　the　Directory　that　was　the　strong

Government。



Psychologically　we　may　readily　explain　the　difference　between　the

Government　of　the　Directory　and　that　of　the　preceding　Assemblies

by　recalling　the　fact　that　a　gathering　of　six　hundred　to　seven

hundred　persons　may　well　suffer　from　waves　of　contagious

enthusiasm；　as　on　the　night　of　the　4th　of　August；　or　even

impulses　of　energetic　will…power；　such　as　that　which　launched

defiance　against　the　kings　of　Europe。　　But　such　impulses　are　too

ephemeral　to　possess　any　great　force。　　A　committee　of　five

members；　easily　dominated　by　the　will　of　one；　is　far　more

susceptible　of　continuous　resolutionthat　is；　of　perseverance　in

a　settled　line　of　conduct。



The　Government　of　the　Directory　proved　to　be　always　incapable　of

governing；　but　it　never　lacked　a　strong　will。　　Nothing

restraining　it；　neither　respect　for　law　nor　consideration　for　the

cit