history of philosophy-第39部分

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René　Descartes　is　a　bold　spirit　who　re…commenced　the　whole　subject　from　the　very　beginning
and　constituted　afresh　the　groundwork　on　which　Philosophy　is　based；　and　to　which；　after　a
thousand　years　had　passed；　it　once　more　returned。　The　extent　of　the　influence　which　this　man
exercised　upon　his　times　and　the　culture　of　Philosophy　generally；　cannot　be　sufficiently　expressed；
it　rests　mainly　in　his　setting　aside　all　former　pre…suppositious　and　beginning　in　a　free；　simple；　and
likewise　popular　way；　with　popular　modes　of　thought　and　quite　simple　propositions；　in　his　leading
to　thought　and　extension　or　Being；　and　so　to　speak　setting　up　this　before　thought　as　its　opposite。
This　simple　thought　appeared　in　the　form　of　the　determinate；　clear　understanding；　and　it　cannot
thus　be　called　speculative　thought　or　speculative　reason。　There　are　fixed　determinations　from
which　Descartes　proceeds；　but　only　of　thought；　this　is　the　method　of　his　time。　What　the　French
called　exact　science；　science　of　the　determinate　understanding；　made　its　appearance　at　this　time。
Philosophy　and　exact　science　were　not　yet　separated；　and　it　was　only　later　on　that　this　separation
first　took　place。

To　come　to　the　life　of　Descartes　—　he　was　born　in　1596；　at　La　Haye　in　Touraine；　of　an　ancient
and　noble　race。　He　received　an　education　of　the　usual　kind　in　a　Jesuit　school；　and　made　great
progress；　his　disposition　was　lively　and　restless；　he　extended　his　insatiable　zeal　in　all　directions；
pursued　his　researches　into　all　systems　and　forms；　his　studies；　in　addition　to　ancient　literature；
embraced　such　subjects　as　philosophy；　mathematics；　chemistry；　physics；　and　astronomy。　But　the
studies　of　his　youth　in　the　Jesuit　school；　and　those　studies　which　he　afterwards　prosecuted　with　the
same　diligence　and　strenuous　zeal；　resulted　in　giving　him　a　strong　disinclination　for　learning　derived
from　books；　he　quitted　the　school　where　he　had　been　educated；　and　yet　his　eagerness　for　learning
was　only　made　the　keener　through　this　perplexity　and　unsatisfied　yearning。　He　went　as　a　young
man　of　eighteen　to　Paris；　and　there　lived　in　the　great　world。　But　as　he　here　found　no　satisfaction；
he　soon　left　society　and　returned　to　his　studies。　He　retired　to　a　suburb　of　Paris　and　there　occupied
himself　principally　with　mathematics；　remaining　quite　concealed　from　all　his　former　friends。　At　last；
after　the　lapse　of　two　years；　he　was　discovered　by　them；　drawn　forth　from　his　retirement；　and
again　introduced　to　the　great　world。　He　now　once　more　renounced　the　study　of　books　and　threw
himself　into　the　affairs　of　actual　life。　Thereafter　he　went　to　Holland　and　entered　the　military　service；
soon　afterwards；　in　1619　and　in　the　first　year　of　the　Thirty　Years’　War；　he　went　as　a　volunteer
with　the　Bavarian　troops；　and　took　part　in　several　campaigns　under　Tilly。　Many　have　found
learning　unsatisfying；　Descartes　became　a　solider　—　not　because　he　found　in　the　sciences　too　little；
but　because　they　were　too　much；　too　high　for　him。　Here　in　his　winter　quarters　he　studied　diligently；
and　in　Ulm；　for　instance；　he　made　acquaintance　with　a　citizen　who　was　deeply　versed　in
mathematics。　He　was　able　to　carry　out　his　studies　even　better　in　winter　quarters　at　Neuberg　on　the
Danube；　where　once　more；　and　now　most　profoundly；　the　desire　awoke　in　him　to　strike　out　a　new
departure　in　Philosophy　and　entirely　reconstruct　it；　he　solemnly　promised　the　Mother　of　God　to
make　a　pilgrimage　to　Loretto　if　she　would　prosper　him　in　this　design；　and　if　he　should　now　at　last
come　to　himself　and　attain　to　peace。　He　was　also　in　the　battle　at　Prague　in　which　Frederick　the
Elector…Palatine　lost　the　Bohemian　crown。　Yet　since　the　sight　of　these　wild　scenes　could　not
satisfy　him；　he　gave　up　military　service　in　1621。　He　made　several　other　journeys　through　the　rest　of
Germany；　and　then　proceeded　to　Poland；　Prussia；　Switzerland；　Italy　and　France。　On　account　of
its　greater　freedom　he　withdrew　to　Holland；　in　order　there　to　pursue　his　projects；　here　he　lived　in
peace　from　1629　to　1644　—　a　period　in　which　he　composed　and　issued　most　of　his　works；　and
also　defended　them　against　the　manifold　attacks　from　which　they　suffered；　and　which　more
especially　proceeded　from　the　clergy。　Queen　Christina　of　Sweden　finally　called　him　to　her　court　at
Stockholm；　which　was　the　rendezvous　for　all　the　most　celebrated　men　of　learning　of　the　time；　and
there　he　died　in　1650。　（1）

As　regards　his　philosophic　works；　those　which　contain　his　first　principles　have　in　particular
something　very　popular　about　their　method　of　presentation；　which　makes　them　highly　to　be
recommended　to　those　commencing　the　study　of　philosophy。　Descartes　sets　to　work　in　a　quite
simple　and　childlike　manner；　with　a　narration　of　his　reflections　as　they　came　to　him。　Professor
Cousin　of　Paris　has　brought　out　a　new　edition　of　Descartes　in　eleven　octavo　volumes；　the　greater
part　consists　of　letters　on　natural　phenomena。　Descartes　gave　a　new　impetus　to　mathematics　as
well　as　to　philosophy。　Several　important　methods　were　discovered　by　him；　upon　which　the　most
brilliant　results　in　higher　mathematics　were　afterwards　built。　His　method　is　even　now　an　essential　in
mathematics；　for　Descartes　is　the　inventor　of　analytic　geometry；　and　consequently　the　first　to　point
out　the　way　in　this　field　of　science　to　modern　mathematics。　He　likewise　cultivated　physics；　optics；
and　astronomy；　and　made　the　most　important　discoveries　in　these；　we　have　not；　however；　to　deal
with　such　matters。　The　application　of　metaphysics　to　ecclesiastical　affairs；　investigations；　etc。；　has
likewise　no　special　interest　for　us。

1。　In　Philosophy　Descartes　struck　out　quite　original　lines；　with　him　the　new　epoch　in　Philosophy
begins；　whereby　it　was　permitted　to　culture　to　grasp　in　the　form　of　universality　the　principle　of　its
higher　spirit　in　thought；　just　as　Boehme　grasped　it　in　sensuous　perceptions　and　forms。　Descartes
started　by　saying　that　thought　must　necessarily　commence　from　itself；　all　the　philosophy　which
came　before　this；　and　specially　what　proceeded　from　the　authority　of　the　Church；　was　for　ever
after　set　aside。　But　since　here　thought　has　properly　speaking　grasped　itself　as　abstract
understanding　only；　in　relation　to　which　the　more　concrete　content　still　stands　over　on　the　other
side；　the　determinate　conceptions　were　not　yet　deduced　from　the　understanding；　but　taken　up　only
empirically。　In　Descartes’　philosophy　we　have　thus　to　distinguish　what　has；　and　what　has　not
universal　interest　for　us：　the　former　is　the　process　of　his　thoughts　themselves；　and　the　latter　the
mode　in　which　these　thoughts　are　presented　and　deduced。　Yet　we　must　not　consider　the　process
as　a　method　of　consistent　proof；　it　is　indeed　a　deep　and　inward　progress；　but　it　comes　to　us　in　an
ingenuous　and　naive　form。　In　order　to　do　justice　to　Descartes’　thoughts　it　is　necessary　for　us　to
be　assured　of　the　necessity　for　his　appearance；　the　spirit　of　his　philosophy　is　simply　knowledge　as
the　unity　of　Thought　and　Being。　And　yet　on　the　whole　there　is　little　to　say　about　his　philosophy。

a。　Descartes　expresses　the　fact　that　we　must　begin　from　thought　as　such　alone；　by　saying　that　we
must　doubt　everything　（De　omnibus　dubitandum　est）；　and　that　is　an　absolute　beginning。　He　thus
makes　the　abolition　of　all　determinations　the　first　condition　of　Philosophy。　This　first　proposition　has
not；　however；　the　same　signification　as　Scepticism；　which　sets　before　it　no　other　aim　than　doubt
itself；　and　requires　that　we　should　remain　in　this　indecision　of　mind；　an　indecision　wherein　mind
finds　its　freedom。　It　rather　signifies　that　we　should　renounce　all　prepossessions　—　that　is；　all
hypotheses　which　are　accepted　as　true　in　their　immediacy　—　and　commence　from　thought；　so　that
from　it　we　should　in　the　first　place　attain　to　some　fixed　and　settled　basis；　and　make　a　true
beginning。　In　Scepticism　this　is　not　the　case　for　with　the　sceptics　doubt　is　the　end　at　which　they
rest。　（2）　But　the　doubting　of　Descartes；　his　making　no　hypotheses；　because　nothing　is　fixed　or
secure；　does　not　occur　in　the　interests　of　freedom　as　such；　in　order　that　nothing　should　have　value
except　freedom　itself；　and　nothing　exist　in　the　quality　of　an　external　objective。　To　him　everything　is
unstable　indeed；　in　so　far　as　the　Ego　can　abstract　from　it　or　can　think；　for　pure　thought　is
abstraction　from　everything。　But　in　consciousness　the　end　is　predominant；　and　it　is　to　arrive　at
something　fixed　and　objective　—　and　not　the　moment　of　subjectivity；　or　the　fact　of　being　set　forth；
known　and　proved　by　me。　Yet　this　last　comes　along　with　the　other；　for　it　is　from　the　starting　point
of　my　thought　that　I　would　attain　my　object；　the　impulse　of　freedom　is　thus　likewise　fundamental。

In　the　propositions　in　which　Descartes　gives　in　his　own　way　the　ground　of　this　great　and　most
important　principle；　there　is　found　a　na？ve　and　empirical　system　of　reasoning。　This　is　an　example：
“Because　we　were　born　as　children；　and　formed　all　manner　of　judgments　respecting　sensuous
things　before　we　had　the　perfect　use　of　our　reason；　we　are　through　many　preconceived　ideas
hindered　from　the　knowledge　of　the　truth。　From　these　we　appear　not　to　be　able　to　free　ourselves
in　any　other　way　but　by　once　in　our　lives　striving　to　doubt　that　respecting　which　we　have　the　very
slightest　suspicion　of　an　uncertainty。　Indeed　it　is　really　desirable　to　hold　as　false　everything　in
respect　to　which　we　have　any　doubt；　so　that　we　may　find　more　clearly　what　is　most　certain　and
most　knowable。　Yet　this　doubt　has　to　be　limited　to　the　contemplation　of　the　truth；　for　in　the
conduct　of　our　life　we　are　compelled　to　choose　the　probable；　since　there　the　opportunity　for
action　would　often　pass　away　before　we　could　solve　our　doubts。　But　here；　where　we　have　only　to
deal　with　the　search　for　truth；　we　may　very　reasonably　doubt　whether　any　thing　sensuous　and
perceptible　exists　—　in　the　first　place　because　we　find　that　the　senses　often　deceive　us　and　it　is
prudent　not　to　trust　in　what　has　even　once　deceived　us；　and　then　because　every　day　in　dreaming
we　think　we　feel　or　see　before　ourselves　innumerable　things　which　never　were；　and　to　the　doubter
no　signs　are　given　by　which　he　can　safely　distinguish　sleeping　from　waking。　We　shall　he