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principal　profit。　He　is　generally　in　contract　with　some　farmers

to　furnish　him　for　a　certain　number　of　years　with　a　certain

quantity　of　corn　at　a　certain　price。　This　contract　price　is

settled　according　to　what　is　supposed　to　be　the　moderate　and

reasonable；　that　is；　the　ordinary　or　average　price；　which　before

the　late　years　of　scarcity　was　commonly　about　eight…and…twenty

shillings　for　the　quarter　of　wheat；　and　for　that　of　other　grain

in　proportion。　In　years　of　scarcity；　therefore；　the　corn　merchant

buys　a　great　part　of　his　corn　for　the　ordinary　price；　and　sells

it　for　a　much　higher。　That　this　extraordinary　profit；　however；　is

no　more　than　sufficient　to　put　his　trade　upon　a　fair　level　with

other　trades；　and　to　compensate　the　many　losses　which　he　sustains

upon　other　occasions；　both　from　the　perishable　nature　of　the

commodity　itself；　and　from　the　frequent　and　unforeseen

fluctuations　of　its　price；　seems　evident　enough；　from　this　single

circumstance；　that　great　fortunes　are　as　seldom　made　in　this　as

in　any　other　trade。　The　popular　odium；　however；　which　attends　it

in　years　of　scarcity；　the　only　years　in　which　it　can　be　very

profitable；　renders　people　of　character　and　fortune　averse　to

enter　into　it。　It　is　abandoned　to　an　inferior　set　of　dealers；　and

millers；　bakers；　mealmen；　and　meal　factors；　together　with　a

number　of　wretched　hucksters；　are　almost　the　only　middle　people

that；　in　the　home　market；　come　between　the　grower　and　the

consumer。

　　　　　The　ancient　policy　of　Europe；　instead　of　discountenancing

this　popular　odium　against　a　trade　so　beneficial　to　the　public；

seems；　on　the　contrary；　to　have　authorized　and　encouraged　it。

　　　　　By　the　5th　and　6th　of　Edward　VI；　c。　14；　it　was　enacted　that

whoever　should　buy　any　corn　or　grain　with　intent　to　sell　it

again；　should　be　reputed　an　unlawful　engrosser；　and　should；　for

the　first　fault；　suffer　two　months'　imprisonment；　and　forfeit　the

value　of　the　corn；　for　the　second；　suffer　six　months'

imprisonment；　and　forfeit　double　the　value；　and　for　the　third；　be

set　in　the　pillory；　suffer　imprisonment　during　the　king's

pleasure；　and　forfeit　all　his　goods　and　chattels。　The　ancient

policy　of　most　other　parts　of　Europe　was　no　better　than　that　of

England。

　　　　　Our　ancestors　seem　to　have　imagined　that　the　people　would

buy　their　corn　cheaper　of　the　farmer　than　of　the　corn　merchant；

who；　they　were　afraid；　would　require；　over　and　above　the　price

which　he　paid　to　the　farmer；　an　exorbitant　profit　to　himself。

They　endeavoured；　therefore；　to　annihilate　his　trade　altogether。

They　even　endeavoured　to　hinder　as　much　as　possible　any　middle

man　of　any　kind　from　coming　in　between　the　grower　and　the

consumer；　and　this　was　the　meaning　of　the　many　restraints　which

they　imposed　upon　the　trade　of　those　whom　they　called　kidders　or

carriers　of　corn；　a　trade　which　nobody　was　allowed　to　exercise

without　a　licence　ascertaining　his　qualifications　as　a　man　of

probity　and　fair　dealing。　The　authority　of　three　justices　of　the

peace　was；　by　the　statute　of　Edward　VI；　necessary　in　order　to

grant　this　licence。　But　even　this　restraint　was　afterwards

thought　insufficient；　and　by　a　statute　of　Elizabeth　the　privilege

of　granting　it　was　confined　to　the　quarter…sessions。

　　　　　The　ancient　policy　of　Europe　endeavoured　in　this　manner　to

regulate　agriculture；　the　great　trade　of　the　country；　by　maxims

quite　different　from　those　which　it　established　with　regard　to

manufactures；　the　great　trade　of　the　towns。　By　leaving　the　farmer

no　other　customers　but　either　the　consumers　or　their　immediate

factors；　the　kidders　and　carriers　of　corn；　it　endeavoured　to

force　him　to　exercise　the　trade；　not　only　of　a　farmer；　but　of　a

corn　merchant　or　corn　retailer。　On　the　contrary；　it　in　many　cases

prohibited　the　manufacturer　from　exercising　the　trade　of　a

shopkeeper；　or　from　selling　his　own　goods　by　retail。　It　meant　by

the　one　law　to　promote　the　general　interest　of　the　country；　or　to

render　corn　cheap；　without；　perhaps；　its　being　well　understood

how　this　was　to　be　done。　By　the　other　it　meant　to　promote　that　of

a　particular　order　of　men；　the　shopkeepers；　who　would　be　so　much

undersold　by　the　manufacturer；　it　was　supposed；　that　their　trade

would　be　ruined　if　he　was　allowed　to　retail　at　all。

　　　　　The　manufacturer；　however；　though　he　had　been　allowed　to

keep　a　shop；　and　to　sell　his　own　goods　by　retail；　could　not　have

undersold　the　common　shopkeeper。　Whatever　part　of　his　capital　he

might　have　placed　in　his　shop；　he　must　have　withdrawn　it　from　his

manufacture。　In　order　to　carry　on　his　business　on　a　level　with

that　of　other　people；　as　he　must　have　had　the　profit　of　a

manufacturer　on　the　one　part；　so　he　must　have　had　that　of　a

shopkeeper　upon　the　other。　Let　us　suppose；　for　example；　that　in

the　particular　town　where　he　lived；　ten　per　cent　was　the　ordinary

profit　both　of　manufacturing　and　shopkeeping　stock；　he　must　in

this　case　have　charged　upon　every　piece　of　his　own　goods　which　he

sold　in　his　shop；　a　profit　of　twenty　per　cent。　When　he　carried

them　from　his　workhouse　to　his　shop；　he　must　have　valued　them　at

the　price　for　which　he　could　have　sold　them　to　a　dealer　or

shopkeeper；　who　would　have　bought　them　by　wholesale。　If　he　valued

them　lower；　he　lost　a　part　of　the　profit　of　his　manufacturing

capital。　When　again　he　sold　them　from　his　shop；　unless　he　got　the

same　price　at　which　a　shopkeeper　would　have　sold　them；　he　lost　a

part　of　the　profit　of　his　shopkeeping　capital。　Though　he　might

appear；　therefore；　to　make　a　double　profit　upon　the　same　piece　of

goods；　yet　as　these　goods　made　successively　a　part　of　two

distinct　capitals；　he　made　but　a　single　profit　upon　the　whole

capital　employed　about　them；　and　if　he　made　less　than　his　profit；

he　was　a　loser；　or　did　not　employ　his　whole　capital　with　the　same

advantage　as　the　greater　part　of　his　neighbours。

　　　　　What　the　manufacturer　was　prohibited　to　do；　the　farmer　was

in　some　measure　enjoined　to　do；　to　divide　his　capital　between　two

different　employments；　to　keep　one　part　of　it　in　his　granaries

and　stack　yard；　for　supplying　the　occasional　demands　of　the

market；　and　to　employ　the　other　in　the　cultivation　of　his　land。

But　as　he　could　not　afford　to　employ　the　latter　for　less　than　the

ordinary　profits　of　farming　stock；　so　he　could　as　little　afford

to　employ　the　former　for　less　than　the　ordinary　profits　of

mercantile　stock。　Whether　the　stock　which　really　carried　on　the

business　of　the　corn　merchant　belonged　to　the　person　who　was

called　a　farmer；　or　to　the　person　who　was　called　a　corn　merchant；

an　equal　profit　was　in　both　cases　requisite　in　order　to　indemnify

its　owner　for　employing　it　in　this　manner；　in　order　to　put　his

business　upon　a　level　with　other　trades；　and　in　order　to　hinder

him　from　having　an　interest　to　change　it　as　soon　as　possible　for

some　other。　The　farmer；　therefore；　who　was　thus　forced　to

exercise　the　trade　of　a　corn　merchant；　could　not　afford　to　sell

his　corn　cheaper　than　any　other　corn　merchant　would　have　been

obliged　to　do　in　the　case　of　a　free　competition。

　　　　　The　dealer　who　can　employ　his　whole　stock　in　one　single

branch　of　business　has　an　advantage　of　the　same　kind　with　the

workman　who　can　employ　his　whole　labour　in　one　single　operation。

As　the　latter　acquires　a　dexterity　which　enables　him；　with　the

same　two　hands；　to　perform　a　much　greater　quantity　of　work；　so

the　former　acquires　so　easy　and　ready　a　method　of　transacting　his

business；　of　buying　and　disposing　of　his　goods；　that　with　the

same　capital　he　can　transact　a　much　greater　quantity　of　business。

As　the　one　can　commonly　afford　his　work　a　good　deal　cheaper；　so

the　other　can　commonly　afford　his　goods　somewhat　cheaper　than　if

his　stock　and　attention　were　both　employed　about　a　greater

variety　of　objects。　The　greater　part　of　manufacturers　could　not

afford　to　retail　their　own　goods　so　cheap　as　a　vigilant　and

active　shopkeeper；　whose　sole　business　it　was　to　buy　them　at

wholesale　and　to　retail　them　again。　The　greater　part　of　farmers

could　still　less　afford　to　retail　their　own　corn；　to　supply　the

inhabitants　of　a　town；　at　perhaps　four　or　five　miles　distance

from　the　greater　part　of　them；　so　cheap　as　a　vigilant　and　active

corn　merchant；　whose　sole　business　it　was　to　purchase　corn　by

wholesale；　to　collect　it　into　a　great　magazine；　and　to　retail　it

again。

　　　　　The　law　which　prohibited　the　manufacturer　from　exercising

the　trade　of　a　shopkeeper　endeavoured　to　force　this　division　in

the　employment　of　stock　to　go　on　faster　than　it　might　otherwise

have　done。　The　law　which　obliged　the　farmer　to　exercise　the　trade

of　a　corn　merchant　endeavoured　to　hinder　it　from　going　on　so

fast。　Both　laws　were　evident　violations　of　natural　liberty；　and

therefore　unjust；　and　they　were　both；　too；　as　impolitic　as　they

were　unjust。　It　is　the　interest　of　every　society　that　things　of

this　kind　should　never　either　be　forced　or　obstructed。　The　man

who　employs　either　his　labour　or　his　stock　in　a　greater　variety

of　ways　than　his　situation　renders　necessary　can　never　hurt　his

neighbour　by　underselling　him。　He　may　hurt　himself；　and　he

generally　does　so。　Jack　of　all　trades　will　never　be　rich；　says

the　proverb。　But　the　law　ought　always　to　trust　people　with　the

care　of　their　own　interest；　as　in　their　local　situations　they

must　generally　be　able　to　judge　better　of　it　than　the　legislator

can　do。　The　law；　however；　which　obliged　the　farmer　to　exercise

the　trade　of　a　corn　merchant　was　by　far　the　most　pernicious　of

the　two。

　　　　　It　obstructed　not　only　that　division　in　the　employment　of

stock　which　is　so　advantageous　to　every　society；　but　it

obstructed　likewise　the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　the　land。

By　obliging　the　farmer　to　carry　on　two　trades　instead　of　one；　it

forced　him　to　divide　his　capital　into　two　parts；　of　which　one

only　could　be　employed　in　cultivation。　But　if　he　had　been　at

liberty　to　sell　his　whole　crop　to　a　corn　merchant　as　fast　as　he

could　thresh　it　out；　his　whole　capital　might　have　returned

immediately　to　the　land；　and　have　been　employed　in　buying　more

cattle；　and　hiring　more　servants；　in　order　to　improve　and