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commerce　of　any　kind。　Their　commerce　was　carried　on　by　barter。　A

sort　of　wooden　spade　was　their　principal　instrument　of

agriculture。　Sharp　stones　served　them　for　knives　and　hatchets　to

cut　with；　fish　bones　and　the　hard　sinews　of　certain　animals

served　them　for　needles　to　sew　with；　and　these　seem　to　have　been

their　principal　instruments　of　trade。　In　this　state　of　things；　it

seems　impossible　that　either　of　those　empires　could　have　been　so

much　improved　or　so　well　cultivated　as　at　present；　when　they　are

plentifully　furnished　with　all　sorts　of　European　cattle；　and　when

the　use　of　iron；　of　the　plough；　and　of　many　of　the　arts　of

Europe；　has　been　introduced　among　them。　But　the　populousness　of

every　country　must　be　in　proportion　to　the　degree　of　its

improvement　and　cultivation。　In　spite　of　the　cruel　destruction　of

the　natives　which　followed　the　conquest；　these　two　great　empires

are；　probably；　more　populous　now　than　they　ever　were　before：　and

the　people　are　surely　very　different；　for　we　must　acknowledge；　I

apprehend；　that　the　Spanish　creoles　are　in　many　respects　superior

to　the　ancient　Indians。

　　　　　After　the　settlements　of　the　Spaniards；　that　of　the

Portuguese　in　Brazil　is　the　oldest　of　any　European　nation　in

America。　But　as　for　a　long　time　after　the　first　discovery　neither

gold　nor　silver　mines　were　found　in　it；　and　as　it　afforded；　upon

that　account；　little　or　no　revenue　to　the　crown；　it　was　for　a

long　time　in　a　great　measure　neglected；　and　during　this　state　of

neglect　it　grew　up　to　be　a　great　and　powerful　colony。　While

Portugal　was　under　the　dominion　of　Spain；　Brazil　was　attacked　by

the　Dutch；　who　got　possession　of　seven　of　the　fourteen　provinces

into　which　it　is　divided。　They　expected　soon　to　conquer　the　other

seven；　when　Portugal　recovered　its　independency　by　the　elevation

of　the　family　of　Braganza　to　the　throne。　The　Dutch　then；　as

enemies　to　the　Spaniards；　became　friends　to　the　Portuguese；　who

were　likewise　the　enemies　of　the　Spaniards。　They　agreed；

therefore；　to　leave　that　part　of　Brazil；　which　they　had　not

conquered；　to　the　King　of　Portugal；　who　agreed　to　leave　that　part

which　they　had　conquered　to　them；　as　a　matter　not　worth　disputing

about　with　such　good　allies。　But　the　Dutch　government　soon　began

to　oppress　the　Portuguese　colonists；　who；　instead　of　amusing

themselves　with　complaints；　took　arms　against　their　new　masters；

and　by　their　own　valour　and　resolution；　with　the　connivance；

indeed；　but　without　any　avowed　assistance　from　the　mother

country；　drove　them　out　of　Brazil。　The　Dutch；　therefore；　finding

it　impossible　to　keep　any　part　of　the　country　to　themselves；　were

contented　that　it　should　be　entirely　restored　to　the　crown　of

Portugal。　In　this　colony　there　are　said　to　be　more　than　six

hundred　thousand　people；　either　Portuguese　or　descended　from

Portuguese；　creoles；　mulattoes；　and　a　mixed　race　between

Portuguese　and　Brazilians。　No　one　colony　in　America　is　supposed

to　contain　so　great　a　number　of　people　of　European　extraction。

　　　　　Towards　the　end　of　the　fifteenth；　and　during　the　greater

part　of　the　sixteenth　century；　Spain　and　Portugal　were　the　two

great　naval　powers　upon　the　ocean；　for　though　the　commerce　of

Venice　extended　to　every　part　of　Europe；　its　fleets　had　scarce

ever　sailed　beyond　the　Mediterranean。　The　Spaniards；　in　virtue　of

the　first　discovery；　claimed　all　America　as　their　own；　and　though

they　could　not　hinder　so　great　a　naval　power　as　that　of　Portugal

from　settling　in　Brazil；　such　was；　at　that　time；　the　terror　of

their　name；　that　the　greater　part　of　the　other　nations　of　Europe

were　afraid　to　establish　themselves　in　any　other　part　of　that

great　continent。　The　French；　who　attempted　to　settle　in　Florida；

were　all　murdered　by　the　Spaniards。　But　the　declension　of　the

naval　power　of　this　latter　nation；　in　consequence　of　the　defeat

or　miscarriage　of　what　they　called　their　Invincible　Armada；　which

happened　towards　the　end　of　the　sixteenth　century；　put　it　out　of

their　power　to　obstruct　any　longer　the　settlements　of　the　other

European　nations。　In　the　course　of　the　seventeenth　century；

therefore；　the　English；　French；　Dutch；　Danes；　and　Swedes；　all　the

great　nations　who　had　any　ports　upon　the　ocean；　attempted　to　make

some　settlements　in　the　new　world。

　　　　　The　Swedes　established　themselves　in　New　Jersey；　and　the

number　of　Swedish　families　still　to　be　found　there　sufficiently

demonstrates　that　this　colony　was　very　likely　to　prosper　had　it

been　protected　by　the　mother　country。　But　being　neglected　by

Sweden；　it　was　soon　swallowed　up　by　the　Dutch　colony　of　New　York；

which　again；　in　1674；　fell　under　the　dominion　of　the　English。

　　　　　The　small　islands　of　St。　Thomas　and　Santa　Cruz　are　the　only

countries　in　the　new　world　that　have　ever　been　possessed　By　the

Danes。　These　little　settlements；　too；　were　under　the　government

of　an　exclusive　company；　which　had　the　sole　right；　both　of

purchasing　the　surplus　produce　of　the　colonists；　and　of　supplying

them　with　such　goods　of　other　countries　as　they　wanted；　and

which；　therefore；　both　in　its　purchases　and　sales；　had　not　only

the　power　of　oppressing　them；　but　the　greatest　temptation　to　do

so。　The　government　of　an　exclusive　company　of　merchants　is；

perhaps；　the　worst　of　all　governments　for　any　country　whatever。

It　was　not；　however；　able　to　stop　altogether　the　progress　of

these　colonies；　though　it　rendered　it　more　slow　and　languid。　The

late　King　of　Denmark　dissolved　this　company；　and　since　that　time

the　prosperity　of　these　colonies　has　been　very　great。

　　　　　The　Dutch　settlements　in　the　West；　as　well　as　those　in　the

East　Indies；　were　originally　put　under　the　government　of　an

exclusive　company。　The　progress　of　some　of　them；　therefore；

though　it　has　been　considerable；　in　comparison　with　that　of

almost　any　country　that　has　been　long　peopled　and　established；

has　been　languid　and　slow　in　comparison　with　that　of　the　greater

part　of　new　colonies。　The　colony　of　Surinam；　though　very

considerable；　is　still　inferior　to　the　greater　part　of　the　sugar

colonies　of　the　other　European　nations。　The　colony　of　Nova

Belgia；　now　divided　into　the　two　provinces　of　New　York　and　New

Jersey；　would　probably　have　soon　become　considerable　too；　even

though　it　had　remained　under　the　government　of　the　Dutch。　The

plenty　and　cheapness　of　good　land　are　such　powerful　causes　of

prosperity　that　the　very　worst　government　is　scarce　capable　of

checking　altogether　the　efficacy　of　their　operation。　The　great

distance；　too；　from　the　mother　country　would　enable　the　colonists

to　evade　more　or　less；　by　smuggling；　the　monopoly　which　the

company　enjoyed　against　them。　At　present　the　company　allows　all

Dutch　ships　to　trade　to　Surinam　upon　paying　two　and　a　half　per

cent　upon　the　value　of　their　cargo　for　a　licence；　and　only

reserves　to　itself　exclusively　the　direct　trade　from　Africa　to

America；　which　consists　almost　entirely　in　the　slave　trade。　This

relaxation　in　the　exclusive　privileges　of　the　company　is　probably

the　principal　cause　of　that　degree　of　prosperity　which　that

colony　at　present　enjoys。　Curacoa　and　Eustatia；　the　two　principal

islands　belonging　to　the　Dutch；　are　free　ports　open　to　the　ships

of　all　nations；　and　this　freedom；　in　the　midst　of　better　colonies

whose　ports　are　open　to　those　of　one　nation　only；　has　been　the

great　cause　of　the　prosperity　of　those　two　barren　islands。

　　　　　The　French　colony　of　Canada　was；　during　the　greater　part　of

the　last　century；　and　some　part　of　the　present；　under　the

government　of　an　exclusive　company。　Under　so　unfavourable　an

administration　its　progress　was　necessarily　very　slow　in

comparison　with　that　of　other　new　colonies；　but　it　became　much

more　rapid　when　this　company　was　dissolved　after　the　fall　of　what

is　called　the　Mississippi　scheme。　When　the　English　got　possession

of　this　country；　they　found　in　it　near　double　the　number　of

inhabitants　which　Father　Charlevoix　had　assigned　to　it　between

twenty　and　thirty　years　before。　That　Jesuit　had　travelled　over

the　whole　country；　and　had　no　inclination　to　represent　it　as　less

considerable　than　it　really　was。

　　　　　The　French　colony　of　St。　Domingo　was　established　by　pirates

and　freebooters；　who；　for　a　long　time；　neither　required　the

protection；　nor　acknowledged　the　authority　of　France；　and　when

that　race　of　banditti　became　so　far　citizens　as　to　acknowledge

this　authority；　it　was　for　a　long　time　necessary　to　exercise　it

with　very　great　gentleness。　During　this　period　the　population　and

improvement　of　this　colony　increased　very　fast。　Even　the

oppression　of　the　exclusive　company；　to　which　it　was　for　some

time　subjected；　with　all　the　other　colonies　of　France；　though　it

no　doubt　retarded；　had　not　been　able　to　stop　its　progress

altogether。　The　course　of　its　prosperity　returned　as　soon　as　it

was　relieved　from　that　oppression。　It　is　now　the　most　important

of　the　sugar　colonies　of　the　West　Indies；　and　its　produce　is　said

to　be　greater　than　that　of　all　the　English　sugar　colonies　put

together。　The　other　sugar　colonies　of　France　are　in　general　all

very　thriving。

　　　　　But　there　are　no　colonies　of　which　the　progress　has　been

more　rapid　than　that　of　the　English　in　North　America。

　　　　　Plenty　of　good　land；　and　liberty　to　manage　their　own　affairs

their　own　way；　seem　to　be　the　two　great　causes　of　the　prosperity

of　all　new　colonies。

　　　　　In　the　plenty　of　good　land　the　English　colonies　of　North

America；　though　no　doubt　very　abundantly　provided；　are　however

inferior　to　those　of　the　Spaniards　and　Portuguese；　and　not

superior　to　some　of　those　possessed　by　the　French　before　the　late

war。　But　the　political　institutions　of　the　English　colonies　have

been　more　favourable　to　the　improvement　and　cultivation　of　this

land　than　those　of　any　of　the　other　three　nations。

　　　　　First；　the　engrossing　of　uncultivated　land；　though　it　has　by

no　means　been　prevented　altogether；　has　been　more　restrained　in

the　English　colonies　than　in　any　other。　The　colony　law　which

imposes　upon　every　proprietor　the　obligation　of　improving　and

cultivating；　within　a　limited　time；　a　certain　proportion　of　his

lands；　and　which　in　cas