labour defended against the claims of capital-第6部分

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oppressed　and　enslaved　peasantry　who　could　escape　from　their
feudal　tyrants。　The　capitalists　and　manufacturers　who　inhabited
them　were　the　skilled　labourers；　and　really　gave　employment　and
protection　to　the　peasantry。　They　taught　them　useful　arts；　and
hence　became　invested　with　the　character　of　benefactors；　both　to
the　poor　and　the　state。　They　were　infinitely　better　than　the
feudal　barons　with　whom　they　were　compared；　and　the　character
they　then　acquired　they　now　retain。　The　veneration　men　have　for
capital　and　capitalists　is　founded　on　a　sort　of　superstitious　and
transmitted　notion　of　their　utility　in　former　times。　But　they
have　long　since　reduced　the　ancient　tyrant　of　the　soil　to
comparative　insignificance；　while　they　have　inherited　his　power
over　all　the　labouring　classes。　It　is；　therefore；　now　time　that
the　reproaches　so　long　cast　on　the　feudal　aristocracy　should　be
heaped　on　capital　and　capitalists；　or　on　that　still　more
oppressive　aristocracy　which　is　founded　on　wealth；　and　which　is
nourished　by　profit。＇

　　　　　I　have　now　show　the　reader　that　the　effects　attributed　to
circulating　capital　result　from　co…existing　labour；　and　the
assurance　common　to　each　labourer；　that　he　will　be　able　to
procure　what　he　wants；　or　that　while　he　is　at　work　other　men　are
also　at　work。　I　have　also　shown　that　fixed　capital　is　produce　by
the　skill　of　the　labourer。　Circulating　capital；　consisting　of
food　and　clothes；　is　created　only　for　consumption；　while　fixed
capital；　consisting　of　instruments　and　tools；　is　made；　not　to　be
consumed；　but　to　aid　the　labourer　in　producing　those　things　which
are　to　be　consumed。　There　is　no　analogy　between　these　two
descriptions　of　commodities；　except　that　both　are　the　produce　of
labour；　and　both　give　the　owner　of　them　a　profit。
　　　　　There　is；　however；　a　striking　difference　between　them　which
deserves　to　be　noticed。　It　is　usually　stated　that　〃the　productive
industry　of　any　country　is　in　proportion　to　its　capital；　increase
when　its　capital　increases；　and　declines　when　its　capital
declines。〃　This　position　is　true　only　of　circulating　capital；　but
not　of　fixed　capital。　The　number　of　productive　labourers　depends
certainly　on　the　quantity　of　food；　clothing；　etc。；　produced　and
appropriated　to　their　use；　it　is　not；　however；　the　quantity　but
the　quality　of　the　fixed　capital　on　which　the　productive　industry
of　a　country　depends。　Instruments　are　productive；　to　use　the
improper　language　of　the　political　economists；　not　in　proportion
as　they　multiplied；　but　as　they　are　efficient。　It　is　probable
that　since　Mr　Watt's　improvements　on　the　steam　engine　one　man　can
perform　as　much　work　with　these　instruments　as　ten　men　did
before。　As　the　efficiency　of　the　fixed　capital　is　increased　by
men　obtaining　greater　knowledge　and　greater　skill；　it　is　quite
possible；　and　is　the　case；　that　a　greater　quantity　of
commodities；　or　a　greater　means　of　nourishing　and　supporting　men；
is　obtained　with　less　capital。　Although；　therefore；　the　number　of
labourers　must　at　all　times　depend　on　the　quantity　of　circulating
capital；　or；　as　I　should　say；　on　the　quantity　of　the　products　of
co…existing　labour；　which　labourers　are　allowed　to　consume；　the
quality　of　commodities　they　produce　will　depend　on　the　efficiency
of　their　fixed　capital。　Circulating　capital　nourishes　and
supports　men　as　its　quantity　is　increased；　fixed　capital　as　a
means　of　nourishing　and　supporting　men　depends　for　its　efficiency
altogether　on　the　skill　of　the　labourer；　and　consequently　the
productive　industry　of　a　country；　as　far　as　fixed　capital　is
concerned；　is　in　proportion　to　the　knowledge　and　skill　of　the
people。
　　　　　The　warmest　admirers　of　circulating　capital　will　not　pretend
that　it　adds　in　the　same　way　as　fixed　capital　to　the　productive
power　of　the　labourer。　The　most　extraordinary　visionary　who　ever
wrote　cannot　suppose　circulating　capital　adds　anything　to
productive　power。　The　degree　and　nature　of　the　utility　of　both
species　of　capital　is　perfectly　different　and　distinct。　The
labourer　subsists　on　what　is　called　circulating　capital；　he　works
with　fixed　capital。　But　equal　quantities　or　equal　values　of　both
these　species　of　capital　bring　their　owner　precisely　the　same
amount　of　profit。　We　may；　from　this　single　circumstance；　be　quite
sure　that　the　share　claimed　by　the　capitalist　for　the　use　of
fixed　capital　is　not　derived　from　the　instruments　increasing　the
efficiency　of　labour；　or　from　the　utility　of　these　instruments；
and　profit　is　derived　in　both　cases　from　the　power　which　the
capitalist　has　over　the　labourer　who　consumes　the　circulating；
and　who　uses　the　fixed；　capital。　How　he　obtained　this　power　I
shall　not　now　inquire；　further　than　to　state　that　it　is　derived
from　the　whole　surface　of　the　country；　having　been　at　one　period
monopolised　by　a　few　persons；　and　the　consequent　state　of　slavery
in　which　the　labourer　formerly　existed　in　this　country；　as　well
as　throughout　Europe。　As　the　profits　of　the　capitalist　on　fixed
capital　are　not　derived　from　the　utility　of　these　instruments；　it
is　useless　to　inquire　what　share　ought　to　belong　to　the　owner　of
the　wood　and　iron；　and　what　share　ought　to　belong　to　the　person
who　uses　them。　He　who　makes　the　instruments　is　entitled；　in　the
eye　of　justice；　and　in　proportion　to　the　labour　he　employs；　to　as
great　a　reward　as　he　who　uses　them；　but　he　is　not　entitled　to　a
greater；　and　he　who　neither　makes　nor　uses　them　has　no　just　claim
to　any　portion　of　the　produce。
　　　　　Betwixt　him　who　produces　food　and　him　who　produces　clothing；
betwixt　him　who　makes　instruments　and　him　who　uses　them；　in　steps
the　capitalist；　who　neither　makes　nor　uses　them；　and　appropriates
to　himself　the　produce　of　both。　With　as　niggard　a　hand　as
possible　he　transfers　to　each　a　part　of　the　produce　of　the　other；
keeping　to　himself　the　large　share。　Gradually　and　successively
has　he　insinuated　himself　betwixt　them；　expanding　in　bulk　as　he
has　been　nourished　by　their　increasingly　productive　labours；　and
separating　them　so　widely　from　each　other　that　neither　can　see
whence　that　supply　is　drawn　which　each　receives　through　the
capitalist。　While　he　despoils　both；　so　completely　does　he　exclude
one　from　the　view　of　the　other　that　both　believe　they　are
indebted　him　for　subsistence。　He　is　the　middleman　of　all
labourers；　and　when　we　compare　what　the　skilled　labour　of　England
produces；　with　the　produce　of　the　untutored　labour　of　the　Irish
peasantry；　the　middlemen　of　England　cannot　be　considered　as
inferior　in　their　exactions　to　the　middlemen　of　Ireland。　They
have　been　more　fortunate；　however；　and　while　the　latter　are
stigmatised　as　oppressors；　the　former　are　honoured　as
benefactors。　Not　only　do　they　appropriate　the　produce　of　the
labourer；　but　they　have　succeeded　in　persuading　him　that　they　are
his　benefactors　and　employers。　At　least　such　are　the　doctrines　of
political　economy；　and　capitalist　may　well　be　pleased　with　a
science　which　both　justifies　their　claims　and　holds　them　up　to
our　admiration；　as　the　great　means　of　civilising　and　improving
the　world。
　　　　　To　show　the　labourer　the　effects　which　bestowing　this
abundant　reward　on　the　supposed　productive　powers　of　food；
clothing　and　instruments　have　on　his　poverty　or　wealth；　I　must
observe　that　all　political　economists　agree　in　saying　that　all
savings　in　society　are　usually　made　by　capitalists。　The　labourer
cannot　save；　the　landlord　is　not　disposed　to　save；　whatever　is
saved　is　saved　from　profits　and　becomes　the　property　of　the
capitalists。　Now　let　us　suppose　that　a　capitalist　possesses；　when
profit　is　at　ten　per　cent　per　annum；　100　quarters　of　wheat　and
100　steam　engines；　he　must　at　the　end　of　a　year　be　paid　for
allowing　the　labourer　to　eat　this　wheat　and　use　these　steam
engines　with　110　quarters　of　wheat　and　110　steam　engines；　all　in
the　same　excellent　condition　as　the　100　steam　engines　were　at　the
beginning。　It　being　an　admitted　principle　that；　after　a　portion
of　fixed　capital　is　prepared；　it　must　be　paid　for　at　a　rate
sufficient　to　pay　the　ordinary　rate　of　interest；　and　provide　for
the　repairs　or　the　remaking　of　the　instrument。　Let　us　suppose
that　5　quarters　of　wheat　and　5　steam　engines；　or　the　value　of
this　quantity；　suffices　for　the　owner's　consumption；　and　that　the
other　5　of　his　profit　being　added　to　this　capital　he　has　the　next
year　105　quarters　of　wheat　and　105　steam　engines；　which　he　allows
labourers　to　eat　or　use；　for　these　the　labourer　must　produce　for
him；　the　following　year；　supposing　the　rate　of　profit　to　continue
the　same；　a　sufficient　sum　to　replace　the　whole　of　this　capital；
with　the　interest；　or　115　quarters　4　bushels　of　wheat　and　155　？
steam　engines。　Supposing　that　the　value　of　the　5　quarters　and　of
5　steam　engines　suffices　for　the　consumption　of　the　capitalist；
he　will　have　the　next　year　110　quarters　4　bushels；　and　110　？
steam　engines；　for　the　use　of　which　he　must　be　paid　at　the　same
rate；　or　the　labourer　must　produce　and　give　him；　the　third　year；
121　quarters　and　1/20th　of　a　quarter；　and　121　steam　engines　and
1/20th　of　a　steam　engine。　It　is　of　no　use　calculating　all　these
fractions；　or　carrying　the　series　further；　it　is　enough　to
observe　that　every　atom　of　the　capitalist's　revenue；　which　he
puts　out　to　use；　or；　as　it　is　called；　saves；　which　means　given　or
lent　to　labourers；　goes　on　increasing　at　compound　interest。　Dr
Price　has　calculated　that　the　sum　of　one　penny　put　out　to
compound　interest　at　our　Saviour's　birth；　at　5　per　cent；　would　in
the　year　1791　amount　to　a　sum　greater　than　could　be　contained　in
three　hundred　millions　of　globes　like　this　earth；　all　solid　gold。
　　　　　Perhaps　I　can　make　the　evil　effects　of　capital　more　apparent
by　another　sort　of　example。　The　　real　price　of　a　coat　or　a　pair
of　shoes　or　a　loaf　of　bread；　all　which　nature　demands　from　man　in
order　that　he　may　have　either　of　these　very　useful　articles；　is　a
certain　quantity　of　labour；　how　much　it　is　almost　impossible　to
say；　from　the　manufacture　of　a　coat；　a　pair　of　shoes　or　a　loaf　of
bread　being　completed　by　many　persons。　But　for　the　labourer　to
have　either　of　these　articles　he　must　give　over　and　above　the
quantity　of　labour　nature　demands　from　him；　a　still　large
quantity　to　the　capitalist。　Before　he　can　have　a　coat；　he　m