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d　and　peasants　resolves　itself　into　money　payments；　and　this　is　only　another　way　of　saying　that　the　manorial　group　disaggregates　itself。　The　peasant　holding　gets　free　from　the　obligation　of　labouring　under　the　supervision　of　the　bailiff；　and　the　home　estate　may　be　either　thrown　over　or　managed　by　the　help　of　hired　servants　and　labourers。　　　　　But　alongside　of　these　facts；　testifying　to　a　progress　towards　modern　times；　we　find　survivals　of　a　more　ancient　order　of　things；　quite　as　incompatible　with　manorial　husbandry。　Instead　of　performing　work　on　the　demesne；　the　peasantry　are　sometimes　made　to　collect　and　furnish　produce　for　the　lord's　table　and　his　other　wants。　They　send　bread；　ale；　sheep；　chicken；　cheese；　etc。；　sometimes　to　a　neighbouring　castle　and　sometimes　a　good　way　off。　When　we　hear　of　the　firma　unius　noctis；　paid　to　the　king's　household　by　a　borough　or　a　village；　we　have　to　imagine　a　community　standing　entirely　by　itself　and　taxed　to　a　certain　tribute；　without　any　superior　land　estate　necessarily　engrafted；　upon　it；　a　home　farm　may　or　may　not　be　close　by；　but　its　management　is　not　dependent　on　the　customary　work　of　the　vill　（consuetudines　villae）；　and　the　connexion　between　the　two　is　casual。　The　facts　of　which　I　am　speaking　are　certainly　of　rare　occurrence　and　dying　out；　but　they　are　very　interesting　from　a　historical　point　of　view；　they　throw　light　on　a　condition　of　things　preceding　the　manorial　system；　and　characterised　by　a　large　over…lordship　exacting　tribute；　and　not　cultivating　land　by　help　of　the　peasantry。　　　　　We　come　precisely　to　the　same　conclusion　by　another　way。　The　feudal　landlord　is　represented　in　the　village　by　his　demesene　land；　and　by　the　servants　acting　as　his　helpers　in　administration。　Now；　the　demesne　land　is　often　found　intermixed　with　the　strips　of　the　peasantry。　This　seems　particularly　fitted　for　a　time　when　the　peasantry　did　not　collect　to　work　on　a　separate　home　farm；　but　simply　devoted　one　part　of　the　labour　on　their　own　ground　to　the　use　of　the　lord。　What　I　mean　is；　that　if　a　demesne　consisted　of；　say；　every　fifth　acre　in　the　village　fields；　the　teams　of　four　virgaters　composing　the　plough　would　traverse　this　additional　acre　after　going　over　four　of　their　own　instead　of　being　called　up　under　the　supervision　of　the　bailiff；　to　do　work　on　an　independent　estate。　The　work　performed　by　the　peasants　when　the　demesne　is　still　in　intermixture　with　the　village　land；　appears　as　an　intermediate　stage　between　the　tribute　paid　by　a　practically　self…dependent　community；　and　the　double　husbandry　of　a　manorial　estate　linked　to　a　village。　　　　　Another　feature　of　transition　is　perceivable　in　the　history　of　the　class　of　servants　or　ministers　who　collect　and　supervise　the　dues　and　services　of　the　peasants。　The　feudal　arrangement　is　quite　as　much　characterised　by　the　existence　of　these　middlemen　as　modern　life　by　the　agreements　and　money　dealings　which　have　rendered　it　useless。　In　the　period　preceding　the　manorial　age　we　see　fewer　officers；　and　their　interference　in　the　life　of　the　community　is　but　occasional。　The　gathering　of　tribute；　the　supervision　of　a　few　labour　duties　in　addition；　did　not　require　a　large　staff　of　ministers。　It　was　in　the　interest　of　the　lord　to　dispense　as　much　as　possible　with　their　costly　help；　and　to　throw　what　obligations　there　were　to　be　performed　on　the　community　itself。　It　seems　to　me　that　the　feudal　age　has　preserved　several　traces　of　institutions　belonging　to　that　period　of　transition。　The　older　surveys；　especially　the　Kentish　ones；　show　a　very　remarkable　development　of　carriage　duties　which　must　have　been　called　forth　by　the　necessity　of　sending　produce　to　the　lord's　central　halls　or　courts；　while　the　home　farms　were　still　few　and　small。　The　riding　bailiffs　appear　in　ancient　documents　in　a　position　which　is　gradually　modified　as　time　goes　on。　They　begin　by　forming　a　very　conspicuous　class　among　the　tenants；　in　fact　the　foremost　rank　of　the　peasantry。　These　radmen；　radulfs；　rodknights；　riders；　are　privileged　people；　and　mostly　rank　with　the　free　tenants；　but　they　are　selected　from　among　the　villagers；　and　very　closely　resemble　the　hundredors；　whose　special　duties　have　kept　up　their　status　among　the　general　decay。　In　later　times；　in　the　second　half　of　the　thirteenth　century　and　in　the　fourteenth；　it　would　be　impossible　to　distinguish　such　a　class　of　riding　tenants。　They　exist　here　and　there；　but　in　most　cases　their　place　has　been　taken　by　direct　dependents　of　the　lord。　Besides；　as　the　home…farm　has　developed　on　every　manor；　their　office　has　lost　some　of　the　importance　it　had　at　a　time　when　there　was　a　good　deal　of　business　to　transact　in　the　way　of　communicating　between　the　villages　and　the　few　central　courts　to　which　rents　had　to　be　carried。　And；　lastly；　I　may　remind　the　reader　of　the　importance　attached　in　some　surveys　to　the　supervision　of　the　best　tenants　over　the　rest　at　the　boon　works。　The　socmen；　or　free　tenants；　or　holders　of　full　lands；　as　the　case　may　be；　have　to　ride　out　with　rods　in　their　hands　to　inspect　the　people　cutting　the　corn　or　making　hay。　These　customs　are　mostly　to　be　found　in　manors　with　a　particularly　archaic　constitution。　They　occur　very　often　on　ancient　demesne。　And　I　need　hardly　say　that　they　point　to　a　still　imperfect　development　of　the　ministerial　class。　The　village　is　already　set　to　work　for　the　lord；　but　it　manages　this　work　as　much　as　possible　by　itself；　with　hardly　any　interference　from　foreign　overseers。　　　　　One　part　of　the　village　population　is　altogether　outside　the　manorial　labour　intercourse　between　village　and　demesne。　The　freeholders　may　perform　some　labour…services；　but　the　home…farm　could　never　depend　on　them；　and　when　such　services　are　mentioned；　they　are　merely　considered　as　a　supplement　to　the　regular　duties　of　the　servile　holders。　At　the　same　time；　the　free　tenants　are　members　of　the　village　community；　engrained　in　it　by　their　participation　in　all　the　eventualities　of　open　field　life；　by　their　holdings　in　the　arable；　by　their　use　of　the　commons。　This　shows；　again；　that　the　manorial　element　is　superimposed　on　the　communal；　and　not　the　foundation　of　it。　I　shall　not　revert　to　my　positive　arguments　in　favour　of　the　existence　of　ancient　freehold　by　the　side　of　tenements　that　have　become　freehold　by　exemption　from　servile　duties。　But　I　may　be　allowed　to　point　out　in　this　place；　that　negatively　the　appearance　of　free　elements　among　the　peasantry　presents　a　most　powerful　check　to　the　theory　of　a　servile　origin　of　the　community：　it　throws　the　burden　of　proof　on　those　who　contend　for　such　an　origin　as　against　the　theory　of　a　free　village　feudalized　in　process　of　time。　　　　　In　a　sense　the　partizans　of　the　servile　community　are　in　the　same　awkward　position　in　respect　to　the　manorial　court。　Its　body　of　suitors　may　have　consisted　to　a　great　extent　of　serfs；　but　surely　it　must　have　contained　a　powerful　free　admixture　also；　because　out　of　serfdom　could　hardly　have　arisen　all　the　privileges　and　rights　which　make　it　a　constitutional　establishment　by　the　side　of　the　lord。　The　suitors　are　the　judges　in　litigation；　the　conveyancing　practice　proceeds　from　the　principle　of　communal　testimony；　and　in　matters　of　husbandry；　custom　and　self…government　prevail　against　any　capricious　change　or　unprecedented　exaction。　And　it　has　to　be　noticed　that　the　will　and　influence　of　the　lord　is　much　more　distinct　and　overbearing　in　the　documents　of　the　later　thirteenth　and　of　the　fourteenth　century；　than　in　the　earlier　records；　one　more　hint；　that　the　feudal　conception　of　society　took　some　time　to　push　back　older　notions；　which　implied　a　greater　liberty　of　the　folk　in　regard　to　their　rulers。　　　　　Whichever　way　we　may　look；　one　and　the　same　observation　is　forced　upon　us：　the　communal　organisation　of　the　peasantry　is　more　ancient　and　more　deeply　laid　than　the　manorial　order。　Even　the　feudal　period　that　has　formed　the　immediate　subject　of　our　study　shows　everywhere　traces　of　a　peasant　class　living　and　working　in　economically　self…dependent　communities　under　the　loose　authority　of　a　lord；　whose　claims　may　proceed　from　political　sources　and　affect　the　semblance　of　ownership；　but　do　not　give　rise　to　the　manorial　connexion　between　estate　and　village。