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from the current assets。 In the case of High Note we have ♀21��108 in current 
assets and ♀4��908 in current liabilities�察�so the working capital is ♀16��200。 
Current ratio 
As a figure the working capital doesn¨t tell us much。 It is rather as if you 
knew your car had used 20 gallons of petrol but had no idea how far you 
had travelled。 It would be more helpful to know how much larger the 
current assets are than the current liabilities。 That would give us some idea 
if the funds would be available to pay bills for stock�察�the tax liability and 
any other short´term liabilities that may arise。 The current ratio�察�which is 
arrived at by dividing the current assets by the current liabilities�察�is the 
measure used。 For High Note this is 21��108/4��908 = 4。30。 The convention is 
to express this as 4。30 �此�1 and the aim here is to have a ratio of between 1。5 �此�1 
and 2 �此�1。 Any lower and bills can¨t be met easily�察�much higher and money is 
being tied up unnecessarily。
44 The Thirty´Day MBA 
Quick ratio ��acid test�� 
This is a belt and braces ratio used to ensure that a business has sufficient 
ready cash or near cash to meet all its current liabilities。 Items such as stock 
are stripped out as although these are assets�察�the money involved is not 
immediately available to pay bills。 In effect the only liquid assets a business 
has are cash�察�debtors and any short´term investment such as bank deposits 
or government securities。 For High Note this ratio is�此�12��000/4��908 = 2。44 �此�1。 
The ratio should be greater than 1 �此�1 for a business to be sufficiently liquid。 
Average collection period 
We can see that High Note¨s current ratio is high�察�which is an indication that 
some elements of working capital are being used inefficiently。 The business 
has ♀12��000 owed by customers on sales of ♀60��000 over a six´month period。 
The average period it takes High Note to collect money owed is calculated 
by dividing the sales made on credit by the money owed ��debtors�� and 
multiplying it by the time period�察�in days�察�in this case the sum is as follows�此�
12��000/60��000 〜 182。5 = 36。5 days。 
If the credit terms are cash with order or seven days�察�then something is 
going seriously wrong。 If it is net 30 days then it is probably about right。 In 
this example it has been assumed that all the sales were made on credit。 
Average payment period 
This ratio shows how long a pany is taking on average to pay its suppliers。 
The calculation is as for average collection period�察�but substituting 
creditors for debtors and purchase for sales。 
Days stock held 
High Note is carrying ♀9��108 stock of sheet music�察�CDs etc and over the 
period it sold ♀30��000 of stock at cost ��the cost of sales is ♀30��000 to support 
♀60��000 of invoiced sales as the mark´up in this case is 100 per cent��。 Using 
a similar sum as with average collection period we can calculate that the 
stock being held is sufficient to support 55。41 days sales ��9��108/10��000 〜 
182。5��。 If High Note¨s suppliers can make weekly deliveries then this is 
almost certainly too high a stock figure to hold。 Cu。。ing stock back from 
nearly 8 weeks ��55。41 days�� to 1 week ��7 days�� would trim 48。41 days or 
♀7��957。38 worth of stock out of working capital。 This in turn would bring 
the current ratio down to 2。68 �此�1。 
Circulation of working capital 
This is a measure used to evaluate the overall efficiency with which 
working capital is being used。 That is the sales divided by the working 
capital ��current assets �C current liabilities��。 In this example that sum is�此�
60��000/16��420 = 3。65 times。 In other words�察�we are turning over the working 
Accounting 45 
capital more than three and a half times each year。 There are no hard and 
fast rules as to what is an acceptable ratio。 Clearly the more times working 
capital is turned over�察�stock sold for example�察�the more chance a business 
has to make a profit on that activity。 
Tests of solvency 
These measures see how a pany is managing its long´term liabilities。 
There are two principal ratios used here。 
Gearing 
This measures as a percentage the proportion of all borrowing�察�including 
long´term loans and bank overdra。。s�察�to the total of shareholders¨ funds 
�C share capital and all reserves。 The gearing ratio is sometimes also known 
as the debt/equity ratio。 For High Note this is�此。�4��908 �� 10��000�� / 18��800 = 
14��908/18��800 = 0。79 �此�1。 In other words�察�for every ♀1 the shareholders have 
invested in High Note they have borrowed a further 79p。 This ratio is 
usually not expected to exceed 1 �此�1 for long periods。 
Interest cover 
This is a measure of the proportion of profit taken up by interest payments 
and can be found by dividing the annual interest payment into the annual 
profit before interest�察�tax and dividend payments。 The greater the number�察�
the less vulnerable the pany will be to any setback in profits�察�or rise in 
interest rates on variable loans。 The smaller the number�察�the more risk that 
level of borrowing represents to the pany。 A figure of between 2 and 5 
times would be considered acceptable。 
Tests of growth 
These are arrived at by paring one year with another�察�usually for elements 
of the profit and loss account such as sales and profit。 So�察�for example�察�
if next year High Note achieved sales of ♀100��000 and operating profits of 
♀16��000 the growth ratios would be 67 per cent�察�that is�察 �40��000 of extra sales 
as a proportion of the first year¨s sales of ♀60��000�察�and 84 per cent�察�that is�察�
♀7��300 of extra operating profit as a percentage of the first year¨s operating 
profit of ♀8��700。 
Some additional information can be gleaned from these two ratios。 In 
this example we can see that profits are growing faster than sales�察�which 
indicates a healthier trend than if the situation were reversed。
46 The Thirty´Day MBA 
Market tests 
This is the name given to stock market measures of performance。 Four key 
ratios here are�此�
Earnings per Share = Net Profit 
Shares Outstanding 
The a。。er´tax profit made by a pany divided by the number of ordinary 
shares it has issued。 
Price Earnings Ratio = Market Price per Share 
Earnings per Share 
The market price of an ordinary share divided by the earnings per share。 
The PE ratio expresses the market value placed on the expectation of future 
earnings�察�ie the number of years required to earn the price paid for the 
shares out of profits at the current rate。 
Yield = Dividends per Share 
Price per Share 
The percentage return a shareholder gets on the `opportunity¨ or current 
value of their investment。 
Dividend Cover = Net Ine 
Dividend 
The number of times the profit exceeds the dividend�察�the higher the ratio�察�
the more retained profit to finance future growth。 
Other ratios 
There are a very large number of other ratios that businesses use for measuring 
aspects of their performance such as�此�
。 sales per ♀ invested in fixed assets �C a measure of the use of those fixed 
assets�察�
。 sales per employee �C showing if your headcount is exceeding your sales 
growth�察�
。 sales per manager�察�per support staff etc �C showing the effectiveness of 
overhead spending。
Accounting 47 
bined ratios 
No one would use a single ratio to decide whether one vehicle was a be。。er 
or worse buy than another。 MPG�察�MPH�察�annual depreciation percentage 
and residual value proportion are just a handful of the ratios that would 
need to be reviewed。 So it is with a business。 A bination of ratios can be 
used to form an opinion on the financial state of affairs at any one time。 
The best known of these bination ratios is the Altman Z´Score 
��creditguru/CalcAltZ。shtml���察�which uses a bined set of five 
financial ratios derived from eight variables from a pany¨s financial 
statements linked to some statistical techniques to predict a pany¨s 
probability of failure。 Entering the figures into the on´screen template at 
this website produces a score and an explanatory narrative giving a view 
on the business¨s financial strengths and weaknesses。 
Some problems in using ratios 
Finding the information to calculate business ratios is o。。en not the major 
problem。 Being sure of what the ratios are really telling you almost always 
is。 The most mon problems lie in the four following areas。 
Which way is right�拭�
There is natural feeling with financial ratios to think that high figures are 
good ones�察�and an upward trend represents the right direction。 This theory 
is�察�to some extent�察�encouraged by the personal feeling of wealth that having 
a lot of cash engenders。 
Unfortunately�察�there is no general rule on which way is right for financial 
ratios。 In some cases a high figure is good�察�in others a low figure is best。 
Indeed�察�there are even circumstances in which ratios of the same value are 
Table 1。12 Difficult parisons 
1 2 
Current assets ♀ ♀ ♀ ♀ 
Stock 10��000 22��990 
Debtors 13��000 100 
Cash 100 23��100 10 23��100 
Less current liabilities 
Overdra。。 5��000 90 
Creditors 1��690 6��690 6��600 6��690 
Working capital 16��410 16��410 
Current ratio 3。4 �此�1 3。4 �此�1
48 The Thirty´Day MBA 
not as good as each other。 Look at the two working capital statements in 
Table 1。12。 
The amount of working capital in each example is the same�察 �16��410�察�as are 
the current assets and current liabilities�察�at ♀23��100 and ♀6��690 respectively。 
It follows that any ratio using these factors would also be the same。 For 
example�察�the current ratios in these two examples are both identical�察�3。4 �此�1�察�
but in the first case there is a reasonable chance that some cash will e in 
from debtors�察�certainly enough to meet the modest creditor position。 In the 
second example there is no possibility of useful amounts of cash ing 
in from trading�察�with debtors at only ♀100�察�while creditors at the relatively 
substantial figure of ♀6��600 will pose a real threat to financial stability。 
So in this case the current ratios are identical�察�but the situations being 
pared are not。 In fact�察�as a general rule�察�a higher working capital ratio 
is regarded as a move in the wrong direction。 The more money a business 
has tied up in working capital�察�the more difficult it is to make a satisfactory 
return on capital empl

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