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above　their　natural　rate。

　　　　　Such　enhancements　of　the　market　price　may　last　as　long　as

the　regulations　of　police　which　give　occasion　to　them。

　　　　　The　market　price　of　any　particular　commodity；　though　it　may

continue　long　above；　can　seldom　continue　long　below　its　natural

price。　Whatever　part　of　it　was　paid　below　the　natural　rate；　the

persons　whose　interest　it　affected　would　immediately　feel　the

loss；　and　would　immediately　withdraw　either　so　much　land；　or　so

much　labour；　or　so　much　stock；　from　being　employed　about　it；　that

the　quantity　brought　to　market　would　soon　be　no　more　than

sufficient　to　supply　the　effectual　demand。　Its　market　price；

therefore；　would　soon　rise　to　the　natural　price。　This　at　least

would　be　the　case　where　there　was　perfect　liberty。

　　　　　The　same　statutes　of　apprenticeship　and　other　corporation

laws　indeed；　which；　when　a　manufacture　is　in　prosperity；　enable

the　workman　to　raise　his　wages　a　good　deal　above　their　natural

rate；　sometimes　oblige　him；　when　it　decays；　to　let　them　down　a

good　deal　below　it。　As　in　the　one　case　they　exclude　many　people

from　his　employment；　so　in　the　other　they　exclude　him　from　many

employments。　The　effect　of　such　regulations；　however；　is　not　near

so　durable　in　sinking　the　workman's　wages　below；　as　in　raising

them　above　their　natural　rate。　Their　operation　in　the　one　way　may

endure　for　many　centuries；　but　in　the　other　it　can　last　no　longer

than　the　lives　of　some　of　the　workmen　who　were　bred　to　the

business　in　the　time　of　its　prosperity。　When　they　are　gone；　the

number　of　those　who　are　afterwards　educated　to　the　trade　will

naturally　suit　itself　to　the　effectual　demand。　The　police　must　be

as　violent　as　that　of　Indostan　or　ancient　Egypt　（where　every　man

was　bound　by　a　principle　of　religion　to　follow　the　occupation　of

his　father；　and　was　supposed　to　commit　the　most　horrid　sacrilege

if　he　changed　it　for　another）；　which　can　in　any　particular

employment；　and　for　several　generations　together；　sink　either　the

wages　of　labour　or　the　profits　of　stock　below　their　natural　rate。

　　　　　This　is　all　that　I　think　necessary　to　be　observed　at　present

concerning　the　deviations；　whether　occasional　or　permanent；　of

the　market　price　of　commodities　from　the　natural　price。

　　　　　The　natural　price　itself　varies　with　the　natural　rate　of

each　of　its　component　parts；　of　wages；　profit；　and　rent；　and　in

every　society　this　rate　varies　according　to　their　circumstances；

according　to　their　riches　or　poverty；　their　advancing；

stationary；　or　declining　condition。　I　shall；　in　the　four

following　chapters；　endeavour　to　explain；　as　fully　and　distinctly

as　I　can；　the　causes　of　those　different　variations。

　　　　　First；　I　shall　endeavour　to　explain　what　are　the

circumstances　which　naturally　determine　the　rate　of　wages；　and　in

what　manner　those　circumstances　are　affected　by　the　riches　or

poverty；　by　the　advancing；　stationary；　or　declining　state　of　the

society。

　　　　　Secondly；　I　shall　endeavour　to　show　what　are　the

circumstances　which　naturally　determine　the　rate　of　profit；　and

in　what　manner；　too；　those　circumstances　are　affected　by　the　like

variations　in　the　state　of　the　society。

　　　　　Though　pecuniary　wages　and　profit　are　very　different　in　the

different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；　yet　a　certain

proportion　seems　commonly　to　take　place　between　both　the

pecuniary　wages　in　all　the　different　employments　of　labour；　and

the　pecuniary　profits　in　all　the　different　employments　of　stock。

This　proportion；　it　will　appear　hereafter；　depends　partly　upon

the　nature　of　the　different　employments；　and　partly　upon　the

different　laws　and　policy　of　the　society　in　which　they　are

carried　on。　But　though　in　many　respects　dependent　upon　the　laws

and　policy；　this　proportion　seems　to　be　little　affected　by　the

riches　or　poverty　of　that　society；　by　its　advancing；　stationary；

or　declining　condition；　but　to　remain　the　same　or　very　nearly　the

same　in　all　those　different　states。　I　shall；　in　the　third　place；

endeavour　to　explain　all　the　different　circumstances　which

regulate　this　proportion。

　　　　　In　the　fourth　and　last　place；　I　shall　endeavour　to　show　what

are　the　circumstances　which　regulate　the　rent　of　land；　and　which

either　raise　or　lower　the　real　price　of　all　the　different

substances　which　it　produces。　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　VIII



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Of　the　Wages　of　Labour　



　　　　　THE　produce　of　labour　constitutes　the　natural　recompense　or

wages　of　labour。

　　　　　In　that　original　state　of　things；　which　precedes　both　the

appropriation　of　land　and　the　accumulation　of　stock；　the　whole

produce　of　labour　belongs　to　the　labourer。　He　has　neither

landlord　nor　master　to　share　with　him。

　　　　　Had　this　state　continued；　the　wages　of　labour　would　have

augmented　with　all　those　improvements　in　its　productive　powers　to

which　the　division　of　labour　gives　occasion。　All　things　would

gradually　have　become　cheaper。　They　would　have　been　produced　by　a

smaller　quantity　of　labour；　and　as　the　commodities　produced　by

equal　quantities　of　labour　would　naturally　in　this　state　of

things　be　exchanged　for　one　another；　they　would　have　been

purchased　likewise　with　the　produce　of　a　smaller　quantity。

　　　　　But　though　all　things　would　have　become　cheaper　in　reality；

in　appearance　many　things　might　have　become　dearer　than　before；

or　have　been　exchanged　for　a　greater　quantity　of　other　goods。　Let

us　suppose；　for　example；　that　in　the　greater　part　of　employments

the　productive　powers　of　labour　had　been　improved　to　ten　fold；　or

that　a　day's　labour　could　produce　ten　times　the　quantity　of　work

which　it　had　done　originally；　but　that　in　a　particular　employment

they　had　been　improved；　only　to　double；　or　that　a　day's　labour

could　produce　only　twice　the　quantity　of　work　which　it　had　done

before。　In　exchanging　the　produce　of　a　day's　labour　in　the

greater　part　of　employments　for　that　of　a　day's　labour　in　this

particular　one；　ten　times　the　original　quantity　of　work　in　them

would　purchase　only　twice　the　original　quantity　in　it。　Any

particular　quantity　in　it；　therefore；　a　pound　weight；　for

example；　would　appear　to　be　five　times　dearer　than　before。　In

reality；　however；　it　would　be　twice　as　cheap。　Though　it　required

five　times　the　quantity　of　other　goods　to　purchase　it；　it　would

require　only　half　the　quantity　of　labour　either　to　purchase　or　to

produce　it。　The　acquisition；　therefore；　would　be　twice　as　easy　as

before。

　　　　　But　this　original　state　of　things；　in　which　the　labourer

enjoyed　the　whole　produce　of　his　own　labour；　could　not　last

beyond　the　first　introduction　of　the　appropriation　of　land　and

the　accumulation　of　stock。　It　was　at　an　end；　therefore；　long

before　the　most　considerable　improvements　were　made　in　the

productive　powers　of　labour；　and　it　would　be　to　no　purpose　to

trace　further　what　might　have　been　its　effects　upon　the

recompense　or　wages　of　labour。

　　　　　As　soon　as　land　becomes　private　property；　the　landlord

demands　a　share　of　almost　all　the　produce　which　the　labourer　can

either　raise；　or　collect　from　it。　His　rent　makes　the　first

deduction　from　the　produce　of　the　labour　which　is　employed　upon

land。

　　　　　It　seldom　happens　that　the　person　who　tills　the　ground　has

wherewithal　to　maintain　himself　till　he　reaps　the　harvest。　His

maintenance　is　generally　advanced　to　him　from　the　stock　of　a

master；　the　farmer　who　employs　him；　and　who　would　have　no

interest　to　employ　him；　unless　he　was　to　share　in　the　produce　of

his　labour；　or　unless　his　stock　was　to　be　replaced　to　him　with　a

profit。　This　profit；　makes　a　second　deduction　from　the　produce　of

the　labour　which　is　employed　upon　land。

　　　　　The　produce　of　almost　all　other　labour　is　liable　to　the　like

deduction　of　profit。　In　all　arts　and　manufactures　the　greater

part　of　the　workmen　stand　in　need　of　a　master　to　advance　them　the

materials　of　their　work；　and　their　wages　and　maintenance　till　it

be　completed。　He　shares　in　the　produce　of　their　labour；　or　in　the

value　which　it　adds　to　the　materials　upon　which　it　is　bestowed；

and　in　this　share　consists　his　profit。

　　　　　It　sometimes　happens；　indeed；　that　a　single　independent

workman　has　stock　sufficient　both　to　purchase　the　materials　of

his　work；　and　to　maintain　himself　till　it　be　completed。　He　is

both　master　and　workman；　and　enjoys　the　whole　produce　of　his　own

labour；　or　the　whole　value　which　it　adds　to　the　materials　upon

which　it　is　bestowed。　It　includes　what　are　usually　two　distinct

revenues；　belonging　to　two　distinct　persons；　the　profits　of

stock；　and　the　wages　of　labour。

　　　　　Such　cases；　however；　are　not　very　frequent；　and　in　every

part　of　Europe；　twenty　workmen　serve　under　a　master　for　one　that

is　independent；　and　the　wages　of　labour　are　everywhere　understood

to　be；　what　they　usually　are；　when　the　labourer　is　one　person；

and　the　owner　of　the　stock　which　employs　him　another。

　　　　　What　are　the　common　wages　of　labour；　depends　everywhere　upon

the　contract　usually　made　between　those　two　parties；　whose

interests　are　by　no　means　the　same。　The　workmen　desire　to　get　as

much；　the　masters　to　give　as　little　as　possible。　The　former　are

disposed　to　combine　in　order　to　raise；　the　latter　in　order　to

lower　the　wages　of　labour。

　　　　　It　is　not；　however；　difficult　to　foresee　which　of　the　two

parties　must；　upon　all　ordinary　occasions；　have　the　advantage　in

the　dispute；　and　force　the　other　into　a　compliance　with　their

terms。　The　masters；　being　fewer　in　number；　can　combine　much　more

easily；　and　the　law；　besides；　authorizes；　or　at　least　does　not

prohibit　their　combinations；　while　it　prohibits　those　of　the

workmen。　We　have　no　acts　of　parliament　against　combining　to　lower

the　price　of　work；　but　many　against　combining　to　raise　it。　In　all

such　disputes　the　masters　can　hold　out　much　longer。　A　landlord；　a

farmer；　a　master　manufacturer；　a　merchant；　though　they　did　not

employ　a　single　workman；　could　generally　live　a　year　or　two　upon

the　stocks　which　they　have　al