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employ　a　single　workman；　could　generally　live　a　year　or　two　upon

the　stocks　which　they　have　already　acquired。　Many　workmen　could

not　subsist　a　week；　few　could　subsist　a　month；　and　scarce　any　a

year　without　employment。　In　the　long　run　the　workman　may　be　as

necessary　to　his　master　as　his　master　is　to　him；　but　the

necessity　is　not　so　immediate。

　　　　　We　rarely　hear；　it　has　been　said；　of　the　combinations　of

masters；　though　frequently　of　those　of　workmen。　But　whoever

imagines；　upon　this　account；　that　masters　rarely　combine；　is　as

ignorant　of　the　world　as　of　the　subject。　Masters　are　always　and

everywhere　in　a　sort　of　tacit；　but　constant　and　uniform

combination；　not　to　raise　the　wages　of　labour　above　their　actual

rate。　To　violate　this　combination　is　everywhere　a　most　unpopular

action；　and　a　sort　of　reproach　to　a　master　among　his　neighbours

and　equals。　We　seldom；　indeed；　hear　of　this　combination；　because

it　is　the　usual；　and　one　may　say；　the　natural　state　of　things；

which　nobody　ever　hears　of。　Masters；　too；　sometimes　enter　into

particular　combinations　to　sink　the　wages　of　labour　even　below

this　rate。　These　are　always　conducted　with　the　utmost　silence　and

secrecy；　till　the　moment　of　execution；　and　when　the　workmen

yield；　as　they　sometimes　do；　without　resistance；　though　severely

felt　by　them；　they　are　never　heard　of　by　other　people。　Such

combinations；　however；　are　frequently　resisted　by　a　contrary

defensive　combination　of　the　workmen；　who　sometimes　too；　without

any　provocation　of　this　kind；　combine　of　their　own　accord　to

raise　the　price　of　their　labour。　Their　usual　pretences　are；

sometimes　the　high　price　of　provisions；　sometimes　the　great

profit　which　their　masters　make　by　their　work。　But　whether　their

combinations　be　offensive　or　defensive；　they　are　always

abundantly　heard　of。　In　order　to　bring　the　point　to　a　speedy

decision；　they　have　always　recourse　to　the　loudest　clamour；　and

sometimes　to　the　most　shocking　violence　and　outrage。　They　are

desperate；　and　act　with　the　folly　and　extravagance　of　desperate

men；　who　must　either　starve；　or　frighten　their　masters　into　an

immediate　compliance　with　their　demands。　The　masters　upon　these

occasions　are　just　as　clamorous　upon　the　other　side；　and　never

cease　to　call　aloud　for　the　assistance　of　the　civil　magistrate；

and　the　rigorous　execution　of　those　laws　which　have　been　enacted

with　so　much　severity　against　the　combinations　of　servants；

labourers；　and　journeymen。　The　workmen；　accordingly；　very　seldom

derive　any　advantage　from　the　violence　of　those　tumultuous

combinations；　which；　partly　from　the　interposition　of　the　civil

magistrate；　partly　from　the　necessity　superior　steadiness　of　the

masters；　partly　from　the　necessity　which　the　greater　part　of　the

workmen　are　under　of　submitting　for　the　sake　of　present

subsistence；　generally　end　in　nothing；　but　the　punishment　or　ruin

of　the　ringleaders。

　　　　　But　though　in　disputes　with　their　workmen；　masters　must

generally　have　the　advantage；　there　is；　however；　a　certain　rate

below　which　it　seems　impossible　to　reduce；　for　any　considerable

time；　the　ordinary　wages　even　of　the　lowest　species　of　labour。

　　　　　A　man　must　always　live　by　his　work；　and　his　wages　must　at

least　be　sufficient　to　maintain　him。　They　must　even　upon　most

occasions　be　somewhat　more；　otherwise　it　would　be　impossible　for

him　to　bring　up　a　family；　and　the　race　of　such　workmen　could　not

last　beyond　the　first　generation。　Mr。　Cantillon　seems；　upon　this

account；　to　suppose　that　the　lowest　species　of　common　labourers

must　everywhere　earn　at　least　double　their　own　maintenance；　in

order　that　one　with　another　they　may　be　enabled　to　bring　up　two

children；　the　labour　of　the　wife；　on　account　of　her　necessary

attendance　on　the　children；　being　supposed　no　more　than

sufficient　to　provide　for　herself。　But　one　half　the　children

born；　it　is　computed；　die　before　the　age　of　manhood。　The　poorest

labourers；　therefore；　according　to　this　account；　must；　one　with

another；　attempt　to　rear　at　least　four　children；　in　order　that

two　may　have　an　equal　chance　of　living　to　that　age。　But　the

necessary　maintenance　of　four　children；　it　is　supposed；　may　be

nearly　equal　to　that　of　one　man。　The　labour　of　an　able…bodied

slave；　the　same　author　adds；　is　computed　to　be　worth　double　his

maintenance；　and　that　of　the　meanest　labourer；　he　thinks；　cannot

be　worth　less　than　that　of　an　ablebodied　slave。　Thus　far　at　least

seems　certain；　that；　in　order　to　bring　up　a　family；　the　labour　of

the　husband　and　wife　together　must；　even　in　the　lowest　species　of

common　labour；　be　able　to　earn　something　more　than　what　is

precisely　necessary　for　their　own　maintenance；　but　in　what

proportion；　whether　in　that　above　mentioned；　or　in　any　other；　I

shall　not　take　upon　me　to　determine。

　　　　　There　are　certain　circumstances；　however；　which　sometimes

give　the　labourers　an　advantage；　and　enable　them　to　raise　their

wages　considerably　above　this　rate；　evidently　the　lowest　which　is

consistent　with　common　humanity。

　　　　　When　in　any　country　the　demand　for　those　who　live　by　wages；

labourers；　journeymen；　servants　of　every　kind；　is　continually

increasing；　when　every　year　furnishes　employment　for　a　greater

number　than　had　been　employed　the　year　before；　the　workmen　have

no　occasion　to　combine　in　order　to　raise　their　wages。　The

scarcity　of　hands　occasions　a　competition　among　masters；　who　bid

against　one　another；　in　order　to　get　workmen；　and　thus

voluntarily　break　through　the　natural　combination　of　masters　not

to　raise　wages。

　　　　　The　demand　for　those　who　live　by　wages；　it　is　evident；

cannot　increase　but　in　proportion　to　the　increase　of　the　funds

which　are　destined　for　the　payment　of　wages。　These　funds　are　of

two　kinds；　first；　revenue　which　is　over　and　above　what　is

necessary　for　the　maintenance；　and；　secondly；　the　stock　which　is

over　and　above　what　is　necessary　for　the　employment　of　their

masters。

　　　　　When　the　landlord；　annuitant；　or　monied　man；　has　a　greater

revenue　than　what　he　judges　sufficient　to　maintain　his　own

family；　he　employs　either　the　whole　or　a　part　of　the　surplus　in

maintaining　one　or　more　menial　servants。　Increase　this　surplus；

and　he　will　naturally　increase　the　number　of　those　servants。

　　　　　When　an　independent　workman；　such　as　a　weaver　or　shoemaker；

has　got　more　stock　than　what　is　sufficient　to　purchase　the

materials　of　his　own　work；　and　to　maintain　himself　till　he　can

dispose　of　it；　he　naturally　employs　one　or　more　journeymen　with

the　surplus；　in　order　to　make　a　profit　by　their　work。　Increase

this　surplus；　and　he　will　naturally　increase　the　number　of　his

journeymen。

　　　　　The　demand　for　those　who　live　by　wages；　therefore；

necessarily　increases　with　the　increase　of　the　revenue　and　stock

of　every　country；　and　cannot　possibly　increase　without　it。　The

increase　of　revenue　and　stock　is　the　increase　of　national　wealth。

The　demand　for　those　who　live　by　wages；　therefore；　naturally

increases　with　the　increase　of　national　wealth；　and　cannot

possibly　increase　without　it。

　　　　　It　is　not　the　actual　greatness　of　national　wealth；　but　its

continual　increase；　which　occasions　a　rise　in　the　wages　of

labour。　It　is　not；　accordingly；　in　the　richest　countries；　but　in

the　most　thriving；　or　in　those　which　are　growing　rich　the

fastest；　that　the　wages　of　labour　are　highest。　England　is

certainly；　in　the　present　times；　a　much　richer　country　than　any

part　of　North　America。　The　wages　of　labour；　however；　are　much

higher　in　North　America　than　in　any　part　of　England。　In　the

province　of　New　York；　common　labourers　earn　three　shillings　and

sixpence　currency；　equal　to　two　shillings　sterling；　a　day；　ship

carpenters；　ten　shillings　and　sixpence　currency；　with　a　pint　of

rum　worth　sixpence　sterling；　equal　in　all　to　six　shillings　and

sixpence　sterling；　house　carpenters　and　bricklayers；　eight

shillings　currency；　equal　to　four　shillings　and　sixpence

sterling；　journeymen　tailors；　five　shillings　currency；　equal　to

about　two　shillings　and　tenpence　sterling。　These　prices　are　all

above　the　London　price；　and　wages　are　said　to　be　as　high　in　the

other　colonies　as　in　New　York。　The　price　of　provisions　is

everywhere　in　North　America　much　lower　than　in　England。　A　dearth

has　never　been　known　there。　In　the　worst　seasons　they　have　always

had　a　sufficiency　for　themselves；　though　less　for　exportation。　If

the　money　price　of　labour；　therefore；　be　higher　than　it　is

anywhere　in　the　mother　country；　its　real　price；　the　real　command

of　the　necessaries　and　conveniencies　of　life　which　it　conveys　to

the　labourer　must　be　higher　in　a　still　greater　proportion。

　　　　　But　though　North　America　is　not　yet　so　rich　as　England；　it

is　much　more　thriving；　and　advancing　with　much　greater　rapidity

to　the　further　acquisition　of　riches。　The　most　decisive　mark　of

the　prosperity　of　any　country　is　the　increase　of　the　number　of

its　inhabitants。　In　Great　Britain；　and　most　other　European

countries；　they　are　not　supposed　to　double　in　less　than　five

hundred　years。　In　the　British　colonies　in　North　America；　it　has

been　found　that　they　double　in　twenty　or　five…and…twenty　years。

Nor　in　the　present　times　is　this　increase　principally　owing　to

the　continual　importation　of　new　inhabitants；　but　to　the　great

multiplication　of　the　species。　Those　who　live　to　old　age；　it　is

said；　frequently　see　there　from　fifty　to　a　hundred；　and　sometimes

many　more；　descendants　from　their　own　body。　Labour　is　there　so

well　rewarded　that　a　numerous　family　of　children；　instead　of

being　a　burthen；　is　a　source　of　opulence　and　prosperity　to　the

parents。　The　labour　of　each　child；　before　it　can　leave　their

house；　is　computed　to　be　worth　a　hundred　pounds　clear　gain　to

them。　A　young　widow　with　four　or　five　young　children；　who；　among

the　middling　or　inferior　ranks　of　people　in　Europe；　would　have　so

little　chance　for　a　second　husband；　is　there　frequently　courted

as　a　sort　of　fortune。　The　value　of　children　is　the　greatest　of

all　encouragement