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labourer；　does　in　eight。　His　work　is　not　quite　so　dirty；　is　less

dangerous；　and　is　carried　on　in　daylight；　and　above　ground。

Honour　makes　a　great　part　of　the　reward　of　all　honourable

professions。　In　point　of　pecuniary　gain；　all　things　considered；

they　are　generally　under…recompensed；　as　I　shall　endeavour　to

show　by　and　by。　Disgrace　has　the　contrary　effect。　The　trade　of　a

butcher　is　a　brutal　and　an　odious　business；　but　it　is　in　most

places　more　profitable　than　the　greater　part　of　common　trades。

The　most　detestable　of　all　employments；　that　of　public

executioner；　is；　in　proportion　to　the　quantity　of　work　done；

better　paid　than　any　common　trade　whatever。

　　　　　Hunting　and　fishing；　the　most　important　employments　of

mankind　in　the　rude　state　of　society；　become　in　its　advanced

state　their　most　agreeable　amusements；　and　they　pursue　for

pleasure　what　they　once　followed　from　necessity。　In　the　advanced

state　of　society；　therefore；　they　are　all　very　poor　people　who

follow　as　a　trade　what　other　people　pursue　as　a　pastime。

Fishermen　have　been　so　since　the　time　of　Theocritus。　A　poacher　is

everywhere　a　very　poor　man　in　Great　Britain。　In　countries　where

the　rigour　of　the　law　suffers　no　poachers；　the　licensed　hunter　is

not　in　a　much　better　condition。　The　natural　taste　for　those

employments　makes　more　people　follow　them　than　can　live

comfortably　by　them；　and　the　produce　of　their　labour；　in

proportion　to　its　quantity；　comes　always　too　cheap　to　market　to

afford　anything　but　the　most　scanty　subsistence　to　the　labourers。

　　　　　Disagreeableness　and　disgrace　affect　the　profits　of　stock　in

the　same　manner　as　the　wages　of　labour。　The　keeper　of　an　inn　or

tavern；　who　is　never　master　of　his　own　house；　and　who　is　exposed

to　the　brutality　of　every　drunkard；　exercises　neither　a　very

agreeable　nor　a　very　creditable　business。　But　there　is　scarce　any

common　trade　in　which　a　small　stock　yields　so　great　a　profit。

　　　　　Secondly；　the　wages　of　labour　vary　with　the　easiness　and

cheapness；　or　the　difficulty　and　expense　of　learning　the

business。

　　　　　When　any　expensive　machine　is　erected；　the　extraordinary

work　to　be　performed　by　it　before　it　is　worn　out；　it　must　be

expected；　will　replace　the　capital　laid　out　upon　it；　with　at

least　the　ordinary　profits。　A　man　educated　at　the　expense　of　much

labour　and　time　to　any　of　those　employments　which　require

extraordinary　dexterity　and　skill；　may　be　compared　to　one　of

those　expensive　machines。　The　work　which　he　learns　to　perform；　it

must　be　expected；　over　and　above　the　usual　wages　of　common

labour；　will　replace　to　him　the　whole　expense　of　his　education；

with　at　least　the　ordinary　profits　of　an　equally　valuable

capital。　It　must　do　this；　too；　in　a　reasonable　time；　regard　being

had　to　the　very　uncertain　duration　of　human　life；　in　the　same

manner　as　to　the　more　certain　duration　of　the　machine。

　　　　　The　difference　between　the　wages　of　skilled　labour　and　those

of　common　labour　is　founded　upon　this　principle。

　　　　　The　policy　of　Europe　considers　the　labour　of　all　mechanics；

artificers；　and　manufacturers；　as　skilled　labour；　and　that　of　all

country　labourers　as　common　labour。　It　seems　to　suppose　that　of

the　former　to　be　of　a　more　nice　and　delicate　nature　than　that　of

the　latter。　It　is　so　perhaps　in　some　cases；　but　in　the　greater

part　is　it　quite　otherwise；　as　I　shall　endeavour　to　show　by　and

by。　The　laws　and　customs　of　Europe；　therefore；　in　order　to

qualify　any　person　for　exercising　the　one　species　of　labour；

impose　the　necessity　of　an　apprenticeship；　though　with　different

degrees　of　rigour　in　different　places。　They　leave　the　other　free

and　open　to　everybody。　During　the　continuance　of　the

apprenticeship；　the　whole　labour　of　the　apprentice　belongs　to　his

master。　In　the　meantime　he　must；　in　many　cases；　be　maintained　by

his　parents　or　relations；　and　in　almost　all　cases　must　be　clothed

by　them。　Some　money；　too；　is　commonly　given　to　the　master　for

teaching　him　his　trade。　They　who　cannot　give　money　give　time；　or

become　bound　for　more　than　the　usual　number　of　years；　a

consideration　which；　though　it　is　not　always　advantageous　to　the

master；　on　account　of　the　usual　idleness　of　apprentices；　is

always　disadvantageous　to　the　apprentice。　In　country　labour；　on

the　contrary；　the　labourer；　while　he　is　employed　about　the

easier；　learns　the　more　difficult　parts　of　his　business；　and　his

own　labour　maintains　him　through　all　the　different　stages　of　his

employment。　It　is　reasonable；　therefore；　that　in　Europe　the　wages

of　mechanics；　artificers；　and　manufacturers；　should　be　somewhat

higher　than　those　of　common　labourers。　They　are　so　accordingly；

and　their　superior　gains　make　them　in　most　places　be　considered

as　a　superior　rank　of　people。　This　superiority；　however；　is

generally　very　small；　the　daily　or　weekly　earnings　of　journeymen

in　the　more　common　sorts　of　manufactures；　such　as　those　of　plain

linen　and　woollen　cloth；　computed　at　an　average；　are；　in　most

places；　very　little　more　than　the　day　wages　of　common　labourers。

Their　employment；　indeed；　is　more　steady　and　uniform；　and　the

superiority　of　their　earnings；　taking　the　whole　year　together；

may　be　somewhat　greater。　It　seems　evidently；　however；　to　be　no

greater　than　what　is　sufficient　to　compensate　the　superior

expense　of　their　education。

　　　　　Education　in　the　ingenious　arts　and　in　the　liberal

professions　is　still　more　tedious　and　expensive。　The　pecuniary

recompense；　therefore；　of　painters　and　sculptors；　of　lawyers　and

physicians；　ought　to　be　much　more　liberal；　and　it　is　so

accordingly。

　　　　　The　profits　of　stock　seem　to　be　very　little　affected　by　the

easiness　or　difficulty　of　learning　the　trade　in　which　it　is

employed。　All　the　different　ways　in　which　stock　is　commonly

employed　in　great　towns　seem；　in　reality；　to　be　almost　equally

easy　and　equally　difficult　to　learn。　One　branch　either　of　foreign

or　domestic　trade　cannot　well　be　a　much　more　intricate　business

than　another。

　　　　　Thirdly；　the　wages　of　labour　in　different　occupations　vary

with　the　constancy　or　inconstancy　of　employment。

　　　　　Employment　is　much　more　constant　in　some　trades　than　in

others。　In　the　greater　part　of　manufacturers；　a　journeyman　may　be

pretty　sure　of　employment　almost　every　day　in　the　year　that　he　is

able　to　work。　A　mason　or　bricklayer；　on　the　contrary；　can　work

neither　in　hard　frost　nor　in　foul　weather；　and　his　employment　at

all　other　times　depends　upon　the　occasional　calls　of　his

customers。　He　is　liable；　in　consequence；　to　be　frequently　without

any。　What　he　earns；　therefore；　while　he　is　employed；　must　not

only　maintain　him　while　he　is　idle；　but　make　him　some

compensation　for　those　anxious　and　desponding　moments　which　the

thought　of　so　precarious　a　situation　must　sometimes　occasion。

Where　the　computed　earnings　of　the　greater　part　of　manufacturers；

accordingly；　are　nearly　upon　a　level　with　the　day　wages　of　common

labourers；　those　of　masons　and　bricklayers　are　generally　from　one

half　more　to　double　those　wages。　Where　common　labourers　earn　four

and　five　shillings　a　week；　masons　and　bricklayers　frequently　earn

seven　and　eight；　where　the　former　earn　six；　the　latter　often　earn

nine　and　ten；　and　where　the　former　earn　nine　and　ten；　as　in

London；　the　latter　commonly　earn　fifteen　and　eighteen。　No　species

of　skilled　labour；　however；　seems　more　easy　to　learn　than　that　of

masons　and　bricklayers。　Chairmen　in　London；　during　the　summer

season；　are　said　sometimes　to　be　employed　as　bricklayers。　The

high　wages　of　those　workmen；　therefore；　are　not　so　much　the

recompense　of　their　skill；　as　the　compensation　for　the

inconstancy　of　their　employment。

　　　　　A　house　carpenter　seems　to　exercise　rather　a　nicer　and　more

ingenious　trade　than　a　mason。　In　most　places；　however；　for　it　is

not　universally　so；　his　day…wages　are　somewhat　lower。　His

employment；　though　it　depends　much；　does　not　depend　so　entirely

upon　the　occasional　calls　of　his　customers；　and　it　is　not　liable

to　be　interrupted　by　the　weather。

　　　　　When　the　trades　which　generally　afford　constant　employment

happen　in　a　particular　place　not　to　do　so；　the　wages　of　the

workmen　always　rise　a　good　deal　above　their　ordinary　proportion

to　those　of　common　labour。　In　London　almost　all　journeymen

artificers　are　liable　to　be　called　upon　and　dismissed　by　their

masters　from　day　to　day；　and　from　week　to　week；　in　the　same

manner　as　day…labourers　in　other　places。　The　lowest　order　of

artificers；　journeymen　tailors；　accordingly；　earn　there　half　a

crown　a…day；　though　eighteenpence　may　be　reckoned　the　wages　of

common　labour。　In　small　towns　and　country　villages；　the　wages　of

journeymen　tailors　frequently　scarce　equal　those　of　common

labour；　but　in　London　they　are　often　many　weeks　without

employment；　particularly　during　the　summer。

　　　　　When　the　inconstancy　of　employment　is　combined　with　the

hardship；　disagreeableness　and　dirtiness　of　the　work；　it

sometimes　raises　the　wages　of　the　most　common　labour　above　those

of　the　most　skilful　artificers。　A　collier　working　by　the　piece　is

supposed；　at　Newcastle；　to　earn　commonly　about　double；　and　in

many　parts　of　Scotland　about　three　times　the　wages　of　common

labour。　His　high　wages　arise　altogether　from　the　hardship；

disagreeableness；　and　dirtiness　of　his　work。　His　employment　may；

upon　most　occasions；　be　as　constant　as　he　pleases。　The

coal…heavers　in　London　exercise　a　trade　which　in　hardship；

dirtiness；　and　disagreeableness；　almost　equals　that　of　colliers；

and　from　the　unavoidable　irregularity　in　the　arrivals　of

coal…ships；　the　employment　of　the　greater　part　of　them　is

necessarily　very　inconstant。　If　colliers；　therefore；　commonly

earn　double　and　triple　the　wages　of　common　labour；　it　ought　not

to　seem　unreasonable　that　coal…heavers　should　sometimes　earn　four

and　five　times　those　wages。　In　the　inquiry　made　into　their

condition　a　few　years　ago；　it　was　found　that　at　the　rate　at　which

they　were　then　paid；　they　could　earn　from　six　to　ten　shilling