wealbk01-第60部分

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of　wheat　in　the　present　times　at　eight…and…twenty　shillings；　the

real　price　of　a　yard　of　fine　cloth　must；　in　those　times；　have

been　equal　to　at　least　three　pounds　six　shillings　and　sixpence　of

our　present　money。　The　man　who　bought　it　must　have　parted　with

the　command　of　a　quantity　of　labour　and　subsistence　equal　to　what

that　sum　would　purchase　in　the　present　times。

　　　　　The　reduction　in　the　real　price　of　the　coarse　manufacture；

though　considerable；　has　not　been　so　great　as　in　that　of　the

fine。

　　　　　In　1643；　being　the　3rd　of　Edward　IV；　it　was　enacted　that　〃no

servant　in　husbandry；　nor　common　labourer；　nor　servant　to　any

artificer　inhabiting　out　of　a　city　or　burgh　shall　use　or　wear　in

their　clothing　any　cloth　above　two　shillings　the　broad　yard。〃　In

the　3rd　of　Edward　IV；　two　shillings　contained　very　nearly　the

same　quantity　of　silver　as　four　of　our　present　money。　But　the

Yorkshire　cloth　which　is　now　sold　at　four　shillings　the　yard　is

probably　much　superior　to　any　that　was　then　made　for　the　wearing

of　the　very　poorest　order　of　common　servants。　Even　the　money

price　of　their　clothing；　therefore；　may；　in　proportion　to　the

quality；　be　somewhat　cheaper　in　the　present　than　it　was　in　those

ancient　times。　The　real　price　is　certainly　a　good　deal　cheaper。

Tenpence　was　then　reckoned　what　is　called　the　moderate　and

reasonable　price　of　a　bushel　of　wheat。　Two　shillings；　therefore；

was　the　price　of　two　bushels　and　near　two　pecks　of　wheat；　which

in　the　present　times；　at　three　shillings　and　sixpence　the　bushel；

would　be　worth　eight　shillings　and　ninepence。　For　a　yard　of　this

cloth　the　poor　servant　must　have　parted　with　the　power　of

purchasing　a　quantity　of　subsistence　equal　to　what　eight

shillings　and　ninepence　would　purchase　in　the　present　times。　This

is　a　sumptuary　law　too；　restraining　the　luxury　and　extravagance

of　the　poor。　Their　clothing；　therefore；　had　commonly　been　much

more　expensive。

　　　　　The　same　order　of　people　are；　by　the　same　law；　prohibited

from　wearing　hose；　of　which　the　price　should　exceed　fourteenpence

the　pair；　equal　to　about　eight…and…twentypence　of　our　present

money。　But　fourteenpence　was　in　those　times　the　price　of　a　bushel

and　near　two　pecks　of　wheat；　which；　in　the　present　times；　at

three　and　sixpence　the　bushel；　would　cost　five　shillings　and

threepence。　We　should　in　the　present　times　consider　this　as　a

very　high　price　for　a　pair　of　stockings；　to　a　servant　of　the

poorest　and　lowest　order。　He　must；　however；　in　those　times　have

paid　what　was　really　equivalent　to　this　price　for　them。

　　　　　In　the　time　of　Edward　IV　the　art　of　knitting　stockings　was

probably　not　known　in　any　part　of　Europe。　Their　hose　were　made　of

common　cloth；　which　may　have　been　one　of　the　causes　of　their

dearness。　The　first　person　that　wore　stockings　in　England　is　said

to　have　been　Queen　Elizabeth。　She　received　them　as　a　present　from

the　Spanish　ambassador。

　　　　　Both　in　the　coarse　and　in　the　fine　woollen　manufacture；　the

machinery　employed　was　much　more　imperfect　in　those　ancient　than

it　is　in　the　present　times。　It　has　since　received　three　very

capital　improvements；　besides；　probably；　many　smaller　ones　of

which　it　may　be　difficult　to　ascertain　either　the　number　or　the

importance。　The　three　capital　improvements　are：　first；　the

exchange　of　the　rock　and　spindle　for　the　spinning…wheel；　which；

with　the　same　quantity　of　labour；　will　perform　more　than　double

the　quantity　of　work。　Secondly；　the　use　of　several　very　ingenious

machines　which　facilitate　and　abridge　in　a　still　greater

proportion　the　winding　of　the　worsted　and　woollen　yarn；　or　the

proper　arrangement　of　the　warp　and　woof　before　they　are　put　into

the　loom；　an　operation　which；　previous　to　the　invention　of　those

machines；　must　have　been　extremely　tedious　and　troublesome。

Thirdly；　the　employment　of　the　fulling　mill　for　thickening　the

cloth；　instead　of　treading　it　in　water。　Neither　wind　nor　water

mills　of　any　kind　were　known　in　England　so　early　as　the　beginning

of　the　sixteenth　century；　nor；　so　far　as　I　know；　in　any　other

part　of　Europe　north　of　the　Alps。　They　had　been　introduced　into

Italy　some　time　before。

　　　　　The　consideration　of　these　circumstances　may；　perhaps；　in

some　measure　explain　to　us　why　the　real　price　both　of　the　coarse

and　of　the　fine　manufacture　was　so　much　higher　in　those　ancient

than　it　is　in　the　present　times。　It　cost　a　greater　quantity　of

labour　to　bring　the　goods　to　market。　When　they　were　brought

thither；　therefore；　they　must　have　purchased　or　exchanged　for　the

price　of　a　greater　quantity。

　　　　　The　coarse　manufacture　probably　was；　in　those　ancient　times；

carried　on　in　England；　in　the　same　manner　as　it　always　has　been

in　countries　where　arts　and　manufactures　are　in　their　infancy。　It

was　probably　a　household　manufacture；　in　which　every　different

part　of　the　work　was　occasionally　performed　by　all　the　different

members　of　almost　every　private　family；　but　so　as　to　be　their

work　only　when　they　had　nothing　else　to　do；　and　not　to　be　the

principal　business　from　which　any　of　them　derived　the　greater

part　of　their　subsistence。　The　work　which　is　performed　in　this

manner；　it　has　already　been　observed；　comes　always　much　cheaper

to　market　than　that　which　is　the　principal　or　sole　fund　of　the

workman's　subsistence。　The　fine　manufacture；　on　the　other　hand；

was　not　in　those　times　carried　on　in　England；　but　in　the　rich　and

commercial　country　of　Flanders；　and　it　was　probably　conducted

then；　in　the　same　manner　as　now；　by　people　who　derived　the　whole；

or　the　principal　part　of　their　subsistence　from　it。　It　was；

besides；　a　foreign　manufacture；　and　must　have　paid　some　duty；　the

ancient　custom　of　tonnage　and　poundage　at　least；　to　the　king。

This　duty；　indeed；　would　not　probably　be　very　great。　It　was　not

then　the　policy　of　Europe　to　restrain；　by　high　duties；　the

importation　of　foreign　manufactures；　but　rather　to　encourage　it；

in　order　that　merchants　might　be　enabled　to　supply；　at　as　easy　a

rate　as　possible；　the　great　men　with　the　conveniences　and

luxuries　which　they　wanted；　and　which　the　industry　of　their　own

country　could　not　afford　them。

　　　　　The　consideration　of　these　circumstances　may　perhaps　in　some

measure　explain　to　us　why；　in　those　ancient　times；　the　real　price

of　the　coarse　manufacture　was；　in　proportion　to　that　of　the　fine；

so　much　lower　than　in　the　present　times。　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CONCLUSION　OF　THE　CHAPTER　



　　　　　I　shall　conclude　this　very　long　chapter　with　observing　that

every　improvement　in　the　circumstances　of　the　society　tends

either　directly　or　indirectly　to　raise　the　real　rent　of　land；　to

increase　the　real　wealth　of　the　landlord；　his　power　of　purchasing

the　labour；　or　the　produce　of　the　labour　of　other　people。

　　　　　The　extension　of　improvement　and　cultivation　tends　to　raise

it　directly。　The　landlord's　share　of　the　produce　necessarily

increases　with　the　increase　of　the　produce。

　　　　　That　rise　in　the　real　price　of　those　parts　of　the　rude

produce　of　land；　which　is　first　the　effect　of　extended

improvement　and　cultivation；　and　afterwards　the　cause　of　their

being　still　further　extended；　the　rise　in　the　price　of　cattle；

for　example；　tends　too　to　raise　the　rent　of　land　directly；　and　in

a　still　greater　proportion。　The　real　value　of　the　landlord's

share；　his　real　command　of　the　labour　of　other　people；　not　only

rises　with　the　real　value　of　the　produce；　but　the　proportion　of

his　share　to　the　whole　produce　rises　with　it。　That　produce；　after

the　rise　in　its　real　price；　requires　no　more　labour　to　collect　it

than　before。　A　smaller　proportion　of　it　will；　therefore；　be

sufficient　to　replace；　with　the　ordinary　profit；　the　stock　which

employs　that　labour。　A　greater　proportion　of　it　must；

consequently；　belong　to　the　landlord。

　　　　　All　those　improvements　in　the　productive　powers　of　labour；

which　tend　directly　to　reduce　the　real　price　of　manufactures；

tend　indirectly　to　raise　the　real　rent　of　land。　The　landlord

exchanges　that　part　of　his　rude　produce；　which　is　over　and　above

his　own　consumption；　or　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　the　price

of　that　part　of　it；　for　manufactured　produce。　Whatever　reduces

the　real　price　of　the　latter；　raises　that　of　the　former。　An　equal

quantity　of　the　former　becomes　thereby　equivalent　to　a　greater

quantity　of　the　latter；　and　the　landlord　is　enabled　to　purchase　a

greater　quantity　of　the　conveniences；　ornaments；　or　luxuries；

which　he　has　occasion　for。

　　　　　Every　increase　in　the　real　wealth　of　the　society；　every

increase　in　the　quantity　of　useful　labour　employed　within　it；

tends　indirectly　to　raise　the　real　rent　of　land。　A　certain

proportion　of　this　labour　naturally　goes　to　the　land。　A　greater

number　of　men　and　cattle　are　employed　in　its　cultivation；　the

produce　increases　with　the　increase　of　the　stock　which　is　thus

employed　in　raising　it；　and　the　rent　increases　with　the　produce。

　　　　　The　contrary　circumstances；　the　neglect　of　cultivation　and

improvement；　the　fall　in　the　real　price　of　any　part　of　the　rude

produce　of　land；　the　rise　in　the　real　price　of　manufactures　from

the　decay　of　manufacturing　art　and　industry；　the　declension　of

the　real　wealth　of　the　society；　all　tend；　on　the　other　hand；　to

lower　the　real　rent　of　land；　to　reduce　the　real　wealth　of　the

landlord；　to　diminish　his　power　of　purchasing　either　the　labour；

or　the　produce　of　the　labour　of　other　people。

　　　　　The　whole　annual　produce　of　the　land　and　labour　of　every

country；　or　what　comes　to　the　same　thing；　the　whole　price　of　that

annual　produce；　naturally　divides　itself；　it　has　already　been

observed；　into　three　parts；　the　rent　of　land；　the　wages　of

labour；　and　the　profits　of　stock；　and　constitutes　a　revenue　to

three　different　orders　of　people；　to　those　who　live　by　rent；　to

those　who　live　by　wages；　and　to　those　who　live　by　profit。　These

are　the　three　great；　original；　and　constituent　orders　of　every

civilised　society；　from　whose　revenue　that　of　every　other　order

is　ultimatel