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their　anxiety　to　avoid　blame；　would　naturally　endeavour　to

shelter　themselves　under　the　example　or　precedent　of　the　judges

who　had　sat　before　them；　either　in　the　same　or　in　some　other

court。　This　attention　to　practice　and　precedent　necessarily

formed　the　Roman　law　into　that　regular　and　orderly　system　in

which　it　has　been　delivered　down　to　us；　and　the　like　attention

has　had　the　like　effects　upon　the　laws　of　every　other　country

where　such　attention　has　taken　place。　The　superiority　of

character　in　the　Romans　over　that　of　the　Greeks；　so　much　remarked

by　Polybius　and　Dionysius　of　Halicarnassus；　was　probably　more

owing　to　the　better　constitution　of　their　courts　of　justice　than

to　any　of　the　circumstances　to　which　those　authors　ascribe　it。

The　Romans　are　said　to　have　been　particularly　distinguished　for

their　superior　respect　to　an　oath。　But　the　people　who　were

accustomed　to　make　oath　only　before　some　diligent　and

well…informed　court　of　justice　would　naturally　be　much　more

attentive　to　what　they　swore　than　they　who　were　accustomed　to　do

the　same　thing　before　mobbish　and　disorderly　assemblies。

　　　　　The　abilities；　both　civil　and　military；　of　the　Greeks　and

Romans　will　readily　be　allowed　to　have　been　at　least　equal　to

those　of　any　modern　nation。　Our　prejudice　is　perhaps　rather　to

overrate　them。　But　except　in　what　related　to　military　exercises；

the　state　seems　to　have　been　at　no　pains　to　form　those　great

abilities；　for　I　cannot　be　induced　to　believe　that　the　musical

education　of　the　Greeks　could　be　of　much　consequence　in　forming

them。　Masters；　however；　had　been　found；　it　seems；　for　instructing

the　better　sort　of　people　among　those　nations　in　every　art　and

science　in　which　the　circumstances　of　their　society　rendered　it

necessary　or　convenient　for　them　to　be　instructed。　The　demand　for

such　instruction　produced　what　it　always　produces…　the　talent　for

giving　it；　and　the　emulation　which　an　unrestrained　competition

never　fails　to　excite；　appears　to　have　brought　that　talent　to　a

very　high　degree　of　perfection。　In　the　attention　which　the

ancient　philosophers　excited；　in　the　empire　which　they　acquired

over　the　opinions　and　principles　of　their　auditors；　in　the

faculty　which　they　possessed　of　giving　a　certain　tone　and

character　to　the　conduct　and　conversation　of　those　auditors；　they

appear　to　have　been　much　superior　to　any　modern　teachers。　In

modern　times；　the　diligence　of　public　teachers　is　more　or　less

corrupted　by　the　circumstances　which　render　them　more　or　less

independent　of　their　success　and　reputation　in　their　particular

professions。　Their　salaries；　too；　put　the　private　teacher；　who

would　pretend　to　come　into　competition　with　them；　in　the　same

state　with　a　merchant　who　attempts　to　trade　without　a　bounty　in

competition　with　those　who　trade　with　a　considerable　one。　If　he

sells　his　goods　at　nearly　the　same　price；　he　cannot　have　the　same

profit；　and　at　least；　if　not　bankruptcy　and　ruin；　will　infallibly

be　his　lot。　If　he　attempts　to　sell　them　much　dearer；　he　is　likely

to　have　so　few　customers　that　his　circumstances　will　not　be　much

mended。　The　privileges　of　graduation；　besides；　are　in　many

countries　necessary；　or　at　least　extremely　convenient；　to　most

men　of　learned　professions；　that　is；　to　the　far　greater　part　of

those　who　have　occasion　for　a　learned　education。　But　those

privileges　can　be　obtained　only　by　attending　the　lectures　of　the

public　teachers。　The　most　careful　attendance　upon　the　ablest

instructions　of　any　private　teacher　cannot　always　give　any　title

to　demand　them。　It　is　from　these　different　causes　that　the

private　teacher　of　any　of　the　sciences　which　are　commonly　taught

in　universities　is　in　modern　times　generally　considered　as　in　the

very　lowest　order　of　men　of　letters。　A　man　of　real　abilities　can

scarce　find　out　a　more　humiliating　or　a　more　unprofitable

employment　to　turn　them　to。　The　endowment　of　schools　and　colleges

have；　in　this　manner；　not　only　corrupted　the　diligence　of　public

teachers；　but　have　rendered　it　almost　impossible　to　have　any　good

private　ones。

　　　　　Were　there　no　public　institutions　for　education；　no　system；

no　science　would　be　taught　for　which　there　was　not　some　demand；

or　which　the　circumstances　of　the　times　did　not　render　it　either

necessary；　or　convenient；　or　at　least　fashionable；　to　learn。　A

private　teacher　could　never　find　his　account　in　teaching　either

an　exploded　and　antiquated　system　of　a　science　acknowledged　to　be

useful；　or　a　science　universally　believed　to　be　a　mere　useless

and　pedantic　heap　of　sophistry　and　nonsense。　Such　systems；　such

sciences；　can　subsist　nowhere；　but　in　those　incorporated

societies　for　education　whose　prosperity　and　revenue　are　in　a

great　measure　independent　of　their　reputation　and　altogether

independent　of　their　industry。　Were　there　no　public　institutions

for　education；　a　gentleman；　after　going　through　with　application

and　abilities　the　most　complete　course　of　education　which　the

circumstances　of　the　times　were　supposed　to　afford；　could　not

come　into　the　world　completely　ignorant　of　everything　which　is

the　common　subject　of　conversation　among　gentlemen　and　men　of　the

world。

　　　　　There　are　no　public　institutions　for　the　education　of　women；

and　there　is　accordingly　nothing　useless；　absurd；　or　fantastical

in　the　common　course　of　their　education。　They　are　taught　what

their　parents　or　guardians　judge　it　necessary　or　useful　for　them

to　learn；　and　they　are　taught　nothing　else。　Every　part　of　their

education　tends　evidently　to　some　useful　purpose；　either　to

improve　the　natural　attractions　of　their　person；　or　to　form　their

mind　to　reserve；　to　modesty；　to　chastity；　and　to　economy；　to

render　them　both　likely　to　become　the　mistresses　of　a　family；　and

to　behave　properly　when　they　have　become　such。　In　every　part　of

her　life　a　woman　feels　some　conveniency　or　advantage　from　every

part　of　her　education。　It　seldom　happens　that　a　man；　in　any　part

of　his　life；　derives　any　conveniency　or　advantage　from　some　of

the　most　laborious　and　troublesome　parts　of　his　education。

　　　　　Ought　the　public；　therefore；　to　give　no　attention；　it　may　be

asked；　to　the　education　of　the　people？　Or　if　it　ought　to　give

any；　what　are　the　different　parts　of　education　which　it　ought　to

attend　to　in　the　different　orders　of　the　people？　and　in　what

manner　ought　it　to　attend　to　them？

　　　　　In　some　cases　the　state　of　the　society　necessarily　places

the　greater　part　of　individuals　in　such　situations　as　naturally

form　in　them；　without　any　attention　of　government；　almost　all　the

abilities　and　virtues　which　that　state　requires；　or　perhaps　can

admit　of。　In　other　cases　the　state　of　the　society　does　not　place

the　part　of　individuals　in　such　situations；　and　some　attention　of

government　is　necessary　in　order　to　prevent　the　almost　entire

corruption　and　degeneracy　of　the　great　body　of　the　people。

　　　　　In　the　progress　of　the　division　of　labour；　the　employment　of

the　far　greater　part　of　those　who　live　by　labour；　that　is；　of　the

great　body　of　the　people；　comes　to　be　confined　to　a　few　very

simple　operations；　frequently　to　one　or　two。　But　the

understandings　of　the　greater　part　of　men　are　necessarily　formed

by　their　ordinary　employments。　The　man　whose　whole　life　is　spent

in　performing　a　few　simple　operations；　of　which　the　effects　are

perhaps　always　the　same；　or　very　nearly　the　same；　has　no　occasion

to　exert　his　understanding　or　to　exercise　his　invention　in

finding　out　expedients　for　removing　difficulties　which　never

occur。　He　naturally　loses；　therefore；　the　habit　of　such　exertion；

and　generally　becomes　as　stupid　and　ignorant　as　it　is　possible

for　a　human　creature　to　become。　The　torpor　of　his　mind　renders

him　not　only　incapable　of　relishing　or　bearing　a　part　in　any

rational　conversation；　but　of　conceiving　any　generous；　noble；　or

tender　sentiment；　and　consequently　of　forming　any　just　judgment

concerning　many　even　of　the　ordinary　duties　of　private　life。　Of

the　great　and　extensive　interests　of　his　country　he　is　altogether

incapable　of　judging；　and　unless　very　particular　pains　have　been

taken　to　render　him　otherwise；　he　is　equally　incapable　of

defending　his　country　in　war。　The　uniformity　of　his　stationary

life　naturally　corrupts　the　courage　of　his　mind；　and　makes　him

regard　with　abhorrence　the　irregular；　uncertain；　and　adventurous

life　of　a　soldier。　It　corrupts　even　the　activity　of　his　body；　and

renders　him　incapable　of　exerting　his　strength　with　vigour　and

perseverance　in　any　other　employment　than　that　to　which　he　has

been　bred。　His　dexterity　at　his　own　particular　trade　seems；　in

this　manner；　to　be　acquired　at　the　expense　of　his　intellectual；

social；　and　martial　virtues。　But　in　every　improved　and　civilised

society　this　is　the　state　into　which　the　labouring　poor；　that　is；

the　great　body　of　the　people；　must　necessarily　fall；　unless

government　takes　some　pains　to　prevent　it。

　　　　　It　is　otherwise　in　the　barbarous　societies；　as　they　are

commonly　called；　of　hunters；　of　shepherds；　and　even　of　husbandmen

in　that　rude　state　of　husbandry　which　precedes　the　improvement　of

manufactures　and　the　extension　of　foreign　commerce。　In　such

societies　the　varied　occupations　of　every　man　oblige　every　man　to

exert　his　capacity　and　to　invent　expedients　for　removing

difficulties　which　are　continually　occurring。　Invention　is　kept

alive；　and　the　mind　is　not　suffered　to　fall　into　that　drowsy

stupidity　which；　in　a　civilised　society；　seems　to　benumb　the

understanding　of　almost　all　the　inferior　ranks　of　people。　In

those　barbarous　societies；　as　they　are　called；　every　man；　it　has

already　been　observed；　is　a　warrior。　Every　man；　too；　is　in　some

measure　a　statesman；　and　can　form　a　tolerable　judgment　concerning

the　interest　of　the　society　and　the　conduct　of　those　who　govern

it。　How　far　their　chiefs　are　good　judges　in　peace；　or　good

leaders　in　war；　is　obvious　to　the　observation　of　almost　every

single　man　among　them。　In　such　a　society；　indeed；　no　man