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leaders　in　war；　is　obvious　to　the　observation　of　almost　every

single　man　among　them。　In　such　a　society；　indeed；　no　man　can　well

acquire　that　improved　and　refined　understanding　which　a　few　men

sometimes　possess　in　a　more　civilised　state。　Though　in　a　rude

society　there　is　a　good　deal　of　variety　in　the　occupations　of

every　individual；　there　is　not　a　great　deal　in　those　of　the　whole

society。　Every　man　does；　or　is　capable　of　doing；　almost　every

thing　which　any　other　man　does；　or　is　capable　of　doing。　Every　man

has　a　considerable　degree　of　knowledge；　ingenuity；　and　invention：

but　scarce　any　man　has　a　great　degree。　The　degree；　however；　which

is　commonly　possessed；　is　generally　sufficient　for　conducting　the

whole　simple　business　of　the　society。　In　a　civilised　state；　on

the　contrary；　though　there　is　little　variety　in　the　occupations

of　the　greater　part　of　individuals；　there　is　an　almost　infinite

variety　in　those　of　the　whole　society。　These　varied　occupations

present　an　almost　infinite　variety　of　objects　to　the

contemplation　of　those　few；　who；　being　attached　to　no　particular

occupation　themselves；　have　leisure　and　inclination　to　examine

the　occupations　of　other　people。　The　contemplation　of　so　great　a

variety　of　objects　necessarily　exercises　their　minds　in　endless

comparisons　and　combinations；　and　renders　their　understandings；

in　an　extraordinary　degree；　both　acute　and　comprehensive。　Unless

those　few；　however；　happen　to　be　placed　in　some　very　particular

situations；　their　great　abilities；　though　honourable　to

themselves；　may　contribute　very　little　to　the　good　government　or

happiness　of　their　society。　Notwithstanding　the　great　abilities

of　those　few；　all　the　nobler　parts　of　the　human　character　may　be；

in　a　great　measure；　obliterated　and　extinguished　in　the　great

body　of　the　people。

　　　　　The　education　of　the　common　people　requires；　perhaps；　in　a

civilised　and　commercial　society　the　attention　of　the　public　more

than　that　of　people　of　some　rank　and　fortune。　People　of　some　rank

and　fortune　are　generally　eighteen　or　nineteen　years　of　age

before　they　enter　upon　that　particular　business；　profession；　or

trade；　by　which　they　propose　to　distinguish　themselves　in　the

world。　They　have　before　that　full　time　to　acquire；　or　at　least　to

fit　themselves　for　afterwards　acquiring；　every　accomplishment

which　can　recommend　them　to　the　public　esteem；　or　render　them

worthy　of　it。　Their　parents　or　guardians　are　generally

sufficiently　anxious　that　they　should　be　so　accomplished；　and

are；　in　most　cases；　willing　enough　to　lay　out　the　expense　which

is　necessary　for　that　purpose。　If　they　are　not　always　properly

educated；　it　is　seldom　from　the　want　of　expense　laid　out　upon

their　education；　but　from　the　improper　application　of　that

expense。　It　is　seldom　from　the　want　of　masters；　but　from　the

negligence　and　incapacity　of　the　masters　who　are　to　be　had；　and

from　the　difficulty；　or　rather　from　the　impossibility；　which

there　is　in　the　present　state　of　things　of　finding　any　better。

The　employments；　too；　in　which　people　of　some　rank　or　fortune

spend　the　greater　part　of　their　lives　are　not；　like　those　of　the

common　people；　simple　and　uniform。　They　are　almost　all　of　them

extremely　complicated；　and　such　as　exercise　the　head　more　than

the　hands。　The　understandings　of　those　who　are　engaged　in　such

employments　can　seldom　grow　torpid　for　want　of　exercise。　The

employments　of　people　of　some　rank　and　fortune；　besides；　are

seldom　such　as　harass　them　from　morning　to　night。　They　generally

have　a　good　deal　of　leisure；　during　which　they　may　perfect

themselves　in　every　branch　either　of　useful　or　ornamental

knowledge　of　which　they　may　have　laid　the　foundation；　or　for

which　they　may　have　acquired　some　taste　in　the　earlier　part　of

life。

　　　　　It　is　otherwise　with　the　common　people。　They　have　little

time　to　spare　for　education。　Their　parents　can　scarce　afford　to

maintain　them　even　in　infancy。　As　soon　as　they　are　able　to　work

they　must　apply　to　some　trade　by　which　they　can　earn　their

subsistence。　That　trade；　too；　is　generally　so　simple　and　uniform

as　to　give　little　exercise　to　the　understanding；　while；　at　the

same　time；　their　labour　is　both　so　constant　and　so　severe；　that

it　leaves　them　little　leisure　and　less　inclination　to　apply　to；

or　even　to　think　of；　anything　else。

　　　　　But　though　the　common　people　cannot；　in　any　civilised

society；　be　so　well　instructed　as　people　of　some　rank　and

fortune；　the　most　essential　parts　of　education；　however；　to　read；

write；　and　account；　can　be　acquired　at　so　early　a　period　of　life

that　the　greater　part　even　of　those　who　are　to　be　bred　to　the

lowest　occupations　have　time　to　acquire　them　before　they　can　be

employed　in　those　occupations。　For　a　very　small　expense　the

public　can　facilitate；　can　encourage；　and　can　even　impose　upon

almost　the　whole　body　of　the　people　the　necessity　of　acquiring

those　most　essential　parts　of　education。

　　　　　The　public　can　facilitate　this　acquisition　by　establishing

in　every　parish　or　district　a　little　school；　where　children　may

be　taught　for　a　reward　so　moderate　that　even　a　common　labourer

may　afford　it；　the　master　being　partly；　but　not　wholly；　paid　by

the　public；　because；　if　he　was　wholly；　or　even　principally；　paid

by　it；　he　would　soon　learn　to　neglect　his　business。　In　Scotland

the　establishment　of　such　parish　schools　has　taught　almost　the

whole　common　people　to　read；　and　a　very　great　proportion　of　them

to　write　and　account。　In　England　the　establishment　of　charity

schools　has　had　an　effect　of　the　same　kind；　though　not　so

universally；　because　the　establishment　is　not　so　universal。　If　in

those　little　schools　the　books；　by　which　the　children　are　taught

to　read；　were　a　little　more　instructive　than　they　commonly　are；

and　if；　instead　of　a　little　smattering　of　Latin；　which　the

children　of　the　common　people　are　sometimes　taught　there；　and

which　can　scarce　ever　be　of　any　use　to　them；　they　were　instructed

in　the　elementary　parts　of　geometry　and　mechanics；　the　literary

education　of　this　rank　of　people　would　perhaps　be　as　complete　as

it　can　be。　There　is　scarce　a　common　trade　which　does　not　afford

some　opportunities　of　applying　to　it　the　principles　of　geometry

and　mechanics；　and　which　would　not　therefore　gradually　exercise

and　improve　the　common　people　in　those　principles；　the　necessary

introduction　to　the　most　sublime　as　well　as　to　the　most　useful

sciences。

　　　　　The　public　can　encourage　the　acquisition　of　those　most

essential　parts　of　education　by　giving　small　premiums；　and　little

badges　of　distinction；　to　the　children　of　the　common　people　who

excel　in　them。

　　　　　The　public　can　impose　upon　almost　the　whole　body　of　the

people　the　necessity　of　acquiring　those　most　essential　parts　of

education；　by　obliging　every　man　to　undergo　an　examination　or

probation　in　them　before　he　can　obtain　the　freedom　in　any

corporation；　or　be　allowed　to　set　up　any　trade　either　in　a

village　or　town　corporate。

　　　　　It　was　in　this　manner；　by　facilitating　the　acquisition　of

their　military　and　gymnastic　exercises；　by　encouraging　it；　and

even　by　imposing　upon　the　whole　body　of　the　people　the　necessity

of　learning　those　exercises；　that　the　Greek　and　Roman　republics

maintained　the　martial　spirit　of　their　respective　citizens。　They

facilitated　the　acquisition　of　those　exercises　by　appointing　a

certain　place　for　learning　and　practising　them；　and　by　granting

to　certain　masters　the　privilege　of　teaching　in　that　place。　Those

masters　do　not　appear　to　have　had　either　salaries　or　exclusive

privileges　of　any　kind。　Their　reward　consisted　altogether　in　what

they　got　from　their　scholars；　and　a　citizen　who　had　learnt　his

exercises　in　the　public　gymnasia　had　no　sort　of　legal　advantage

over　one　who　had　learnt　them　privately；　provided　the　latter　had

learnt　them　equally　well。　Those　republics　encouraged　the

acquisition　of　those　exercises　by　bestowing　little　premiums　and

badges　of　distinction　upon：　those　who　excelled　in　them。　To　have

gained　a　prize　in　the　Olympic；　Isthmian；　or　Nemaean　games；　gave

illustration；　not　only　to　the　person　who　gained　it；　but　to　his

whole　family　and　kindred。　The　obligation　which　every　citizen　was

under　to　serve　a　certain　number　of　years；　if　called　upon；　in　the

armies　of　the　republic；　sufficiently　imposed　the　necessity　of

learning　those　exercises；　without　which　he　could　not　be　fit　for

that　service。

　　　　　That　in　the　progress　of　improvement　the　practice　of　military

exercises；　unless　government　takes　proper　pains　to　support　it；

goes　gradually　to　decay；　and；　together　with　it；　the　martial

spirit　of　the　great　body　of　the　people；　the　example　of　modern

Europe　sufficiently　demonstrates。　But　the　security　of　every

society　must　always　depend；　more　or　less；　upon　the　martial　spirit

of　the　great　body　of　the　people。　In　the　present　times；　indeed；

that　martial　spirit　alone；　and　unsupported　by　a　well…disciplined

standing　army；　would　not　perhaps　be　sufficient　for　the　defence

and　security　of　any　society。　But　where　every　citizen　had　the

spirit　of　a　soldier；　a　smaller　standing　army　would　surely　be

requisite。　That　spirit；　besides；　would　necessarily　diminish　very

much　the　dangers　to　liberty；　whether　real　or　imaginary；　which　are

commonly　apprehended　from　a　standing　army。　As　it　would　very　much

facilitate　the　operations　of　that　army　against　a　foreign　invader；

so　it　would　obstruct　them　as　much　if；　unfortunately；　they　should

ever　be　directed　against　the　constitution　of　the　state。

　　　　　The　ancient　institutions　of　Greece　and　Rome　seem　to　have

been　much　more　effectual　for　maintaining　the　martial　spirit　of

the　great　body　of　the　people　than　the　establishment　of　what　are

called　the　militias　of　modern　times。　They　were　much　more　simple。

When　they　were　once　established　they　executed　themselves；　and　it

required　little　or　no　attention　from　government　to　maintain　them

in　the　most　perfect　vigour。　Whereas　to　maintain；　even　in

tolerable　execution；　the　complex　regulat