the man versus the state-第6部分

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k　in　pursuit　of　popular　welfare；　he　was　taken　to　Hinton　to　be　buried；　the　procession　which　followed　him　to　the　grave　included　not　the　well…to…do　only　but　the　poor。　　　　　　Several　motives　have　prompted　this　brief　narrative。　One　is　the　wish　to　prove　that　sympathy　with　the　people　and　self…sacrificing　efforts　on　their　behalf；　do　not　necessarily　imply　approval　of　gratuitous　aids。　Another　is　the　desire　to　show　that　benefit　may　result；　not　from　multiplication　of　artificial　appliances　to　mitigate　distress；　but；　contrariwise；　from　diminution　of　them。　And　a　further　purpose　I　have　in　view　is　that　of　preparing　the　way　for　an　analogy。　　　　　　Under　another　form　and　in　a　different　sphere；　we　are　now　yearly　extending　a　system　which　is　identical　in　nature　with　the　system　of　〃make…wages〃　under　the　old　Poor　Law。　Little　as　politicians　recognize　the　fact；　it　is　nevertheless　demonstrable　that　these　various　public　appliances　for　working…class　comfort；　which　they　are　supplying　at　the　cost　of　ratepayers；　are　intrinsically　of　the　same　nature　as　those　which；　in　past　times；　treated　the　farmer's　man　as　half…labourer　and　half…pauper。　In　either　case　the　worker　receives　in　return　for　what　he　does；　money　wherewith　to　buy　certain　of　the　things　he　wants；　while；　to　procure　the　rest　of　them　for　him；　money　is　furnished　out　of　a　common　fund　raised　by　taxes。　What　matters　it　whether　the　things　supplied　by　ratepayers　for　nothing；　instead　of　by　the　employer　in　payment；　are　of　this　kind　or　that　kind？　The　principle　is　the　same。　For　sums　received　let　us　substitute　the　commodities　and　benefits　purchased；　and　then　see　how　the　matter　stands。　In　old　Poor…Law　times；　the　farmer　gave　for　work　done　the　equivalent；　say　of　house…rent；　bread；　clothes；　and　fire；　while　the　ratepayers　practically　supplied　the　man　and　his　family　with　their　shoes；　tea；　sugar；　candles；　a　little　bacon；　etc。　The　division　is；　of　course；　arbitrary；　but　unquestionably　the　farmer　and　the　ratepayers　furnished　these　things　between　them。　At　the　present　time　the　artisan　receives　from　his　employer　in　wages；　the　equivalent　of　the　consumable　commodities　he　wants；　while　from　the　public　comes　satisfaction　for　others　of　his　needs　and　desires。　At　the　cost　of　ratepayers　he　has　in　some　cases；　and　will　presently　have　in　more；　a　house　at　less　than　its　commercial　value；　for　of　course　when；　as　in　Liverpool；　a　municipality　spends　nearly　*200；000　in　pulling　down　and　reconstructing　low…class　dwellings；　and　is　about　to　spend　as　much　again；　the　implication　is　that　in　some　way　the　ratepayers　supply　the　poor　with　more　accommodation　than　the　rents　they　pay　would　otherwise　have　brought。　The　artisan　further　receives　from　them；　in　schooling　for　his　children；　much　more　than　he　pays　for；　and　there　is　every　probability　that　he　will　presently　receive　it　from　them　gratis。　The　ratepayers　also　satisfy　what　desire　he　may　have　for　books　and　newspapers；　and　comfortable　places　to　read　them　in。　In　some　cases　too；　as　in　Manchester；　gymnasia　for　his　children　of　both　sexes；　as　well　as　recreation　grounds；　are　provided。　That　is　to　say；　he　obtains　from　a　fund　raised　by　local　taxes；　certain　benefits　beyond　those　which　the　sum　received　for　his　labour　enables　him　to　purchase。　The　sole　difference；　then；　between　this　system　and　the　old　system　of　〃make…wages；〃　is　between　the　kinds　of　satisfactions　obtained；　and　this　difference　does　not　in　the　least　affect　the　nature　of　the　arrangement。　　　　　　Moreover；　the　two　are　pervaded　by　substantially　the　same　illusion。　In　the　one　case；　as　in　the　other；　what　looks　like　a　gratis　benefit　is　not　a　gratis　benefit。　The　amount　which；　under　the　old　Poor　Law；　the　half…pauperized　labourer　received　from　the　parish　to　eke　out　his　weekly　income；　was　not　really；　as　it　appeared；　a　bonus；　for　it　was　accompanied　by　a　substantially…equivalent　decrease　in　his　wages；　as　was　quickly　proved　when　the　system　was　abolished　and　the　wages　rose。　Just　so　is　it　with　these　seeming　boons　received　by　working　people　in　towns。　I　do　not　refer　only　to　the　fact　that　they　unawares　pay　in　part　through　the　raised　rents　of　their　dwellings　（when　they　are　not　actual　ratepayers）；　but　I　refer　to　the　fact　that　the　wages　received　by　them　are；　like　the　wages　of　the　farm…labourer；　diminished　by　these　public　burdens　falling　on　employers。　Read　the　accounts　coming　of　late　from　Lancashire　concerning　the　cotton　strike；　containing　proofs；　given　by　artisans　themselves；　that　the　margin　of　profit　is　so　narrow　that　the　less　skilful　manufacturers；　as　well　as　those　with　deficient　capital；　fail；　and　that　the　companies　of　co…operators　who　compete　with　them　can　rarely　hold　their　own；　and　then　consider　what　is　the　implication　respecting　wages。　Among　the　costs　of　production　have　to　be　reckoned　taxes；　general　and　local。　If；　as　in　our　large　towns；　the　local　rates　now　amount　to　one…third　of　the　rental　or　more　　if　the　employer　has　to　pay　this；　not　on　his　private　dwelling　only；　but　on　his　business…premises；　factories；　warehouses；　or　the　like；　it　results　that　the　interest　on　his　capital　must　be　diminished　by　that　amount；　or　the　amount　must　be　taken　from　the　wages…fund；　or　partly　one　and　partly　the　other。　And　if　competition　among　capitalists　in　the　same　business　and　in　other　businesses；　has　the　effect　of　so　keeping　down　interest　that　while　some　gain　others　lose；　and　not　a　few　are　ruined　　if　capital；　not　getting　adequate　interest；　flows　elsewhere　and　leaves　labour　unemployed；　then　it　is　manifest　that　the　choice　for　the　artisan　under　such　conditions；　lies　between　diminished　amount　of　work　or　diminished　rate　of　payment　for　it。　Moreover；　for　kindred　reasons　these　local　burdens　raise　the　costs　of　the　things　he　consumes。　The　charges　made　by　distributors　are；　on　the　average；　determined　by　the　current　rates　of　interest　on　capital　used　in　distributing　businesses；　and　the　extra　costs　of　caring　on　such　businesses　have　to　be　paid　for　by　extra　prices。　So　that　as　in　the　past　the　rural　worker　lost　in　one　way　what　he　gained　in　another；　so　in　the　present　does　the　urban　worker：　there　being　too；　in　both　cases；　the　loss　entailed　on　him　by　the　cost　of　administration　and　the　waste　accompanying　it。　　　　　　〃But　what　has　all　this　to　do　with　'the　coming　slavery'？〃　will　perhaps　be　asked。　Nothing　directly；　but　a　good　deal　indirectly；　as　we　shall　see　after　yet　another　preliminary　section。　

It　is　said　that　when　railways　were　first　opened　in　Spain；　peasants　standing　on　the　tracks　were　not　unfrequently　run　over；　and　that　the　blame　fell　on　the　engine…drivers　for　not　stopping：　rural　experiences　having　yielded　no　conception　of　the　momentum　of　a　large　mass　moving　at　a　high　velocity。　　　　　　The　incident　is　recalled　to　me　on　contemplating　the　ideas　of　the　so…called　〃practical〃　politician；　into　whose　mind　there　enters　no　thought　of　such　a　thing　as　political　momentum；　still　less　of　a　political　momentum　which；　instead　of　diminishing　or　remaining　constant；　increases。　The　theory　on　which　he　daily　proceeds　is　that　the　change　caused　by　his　measure　will　stop　where　he　intends　it　to　stop。　He　contemplates　intently　the　things　his　act　will　achieve；　but　thinks　little　of　the　remoter　issues　of　the　movement　his　act　sets　up；　and　still　less　of　its　collateral　issues。　When；　in　war…time；　〃food　for　powder〃　was　to　be　provided　by　encouraging　population　　when　Mr　Pitt　said；　〃Let　us　make　relief　in　cases　where　there　are　a　number　of　children　a　matter　of　right　and　honour；　instead　of　a　ground　for　opprobrium　and　contempt；〃（1*）　it　was　not　expected　that　the　poor…rates　would　be　quadrupled　in　fifty　years；　that　women　with　many　bastards　would　be　preferred　as　wives　to　modest　women；　because　of　their　incomes　from　the　parish；　and　that　hosts　of　ratepayers　would　be　pulled　down　into　the　ranks　of　pauperism。　Legislators　who　in　1833　voted　*20；000　a　year　to　aid　in　building　school…houses；　never　supposed　that　the　step　they　then　took　would　lead　to　forced　contributions；　local　and　general；　now　amounting　to　*6；000；000；　they　did　not　intend　to　establish　the　principle　that　A　should　be　made　responsible　for　educating　B's　offspring；　they　did　not　dream　of　a　compulsion　which　would　deprive　poor　widows　of　the　help　of　their　elder　children；　and　still　less　did　they　dream　that　their　successors；　by　requiring　impoverished　parents　to　apply　to　Boards　of　Guardians　to　pay　the　fees　which　School　Boards　would　not　remit；　would　initiate　a　habit　of　applying　to　Boards　of　Guardians　and　so　cause　pauperization。（2*）　Neither　did　those　who　in　1834　passed　an　Act　regulating　the　labour　of　women　and　children　in　certain　factories；　imagine　that　the　system　they　were　beginning　would　end　in　the　restriction　and　inspection　of　labour　in　all　kinds　of　producing　establishments　where　more　than　fifty　people　are　employed；　nor　did　they　conceive　that　the　inspection　provided　would　grow　to　the　extent　of　requiring　that　before　a　〃young　person〃　is　employed　in　a　factory；　authority　must　be　given　by　a　certifying　surgeon；　who；　by　personal　examination　（to　which　no　limit　is　placed）　has　satisfied　himself　that　there　is　no　incapacitating　disease　or　bodily　infirmity：　his　verdict　determining　whether　the　〃young　person〃　shall　earn　wages　or　not。（3*）　Even　less；　as　I　say；　does　the　politician　who　plumes　himself　on　the　practicalness　of　his　aims；　conceive　the　indirect　results　which　will　follow　the　direct　results　of　his　measures。　Thus；　to　take　a　case　connected　with　one　named　above；　it　was　not　intended　through　the　system　of　〃payment　by　results；〃　to　do　anything　more　than　give　teachers　an　efficient　stimulus：　it　was　not　supposed　that　in　numerous　cases　their　health　would　give　way　under　the　stimulus；　it　was　not　expected　that　they　would　be　led　to　adopt　a　cramming　system　and　to　put　undue　pressure　on　dull　and　weak　children；　often　to　their　great　injury；　it　was　not　foreseen　that　in　many　cases　a　bodily　enfeeblement　would　be　caused　which　no　amount　of　grammar　and　geography　can　compensate　for。　The　licensing　of　public　houses　was　simply　for　maintaining　public　order：　those　who　devised　it　never　imagined　that　there　would　result　an　organized　interest　powerfully　influencing　elections　in　an　unwholesome　way。　Nor　did　it　occur　to　the　〃practical〃　politicians　who　provided　a　compulsory　load…line　for　merchant　vessels；　that　the　pressure　of　shipowners'　interests　would　habitually　cause　the　putting　of　the　load…line　at　the　very　highest　limit；　and　that　from　precedent　to　precedent；　tending　ever　in　the　same　direction；　the　l