the science of right-第14部分

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　　　　1。　Letting　of　a　thing　on　hire　to　another　person　who　is　to　make　use

of　it　（locatio　rei）。　If　the　thing　can　only　be　restored　in　specie；　it

may　be　the　subject　of　an　onerous　contract　combining　the

consideration　of　interest　with　it　（pactum　usurarium）。

　　　　2。　Letting　of　work　on　hire　（locatio　operae）。　Consent　to　the　use　of

my　powers　by　another　for　a　certain　price　（merces）。　The　worker　under

this　contract　is　a　hired　servant　（mercenarius）。

　　　　3。　Mandate　（mandatum）。　The　contract　of　mandate　is　an　engagement　to

perform　or　execute　a　certain　business　in　place　and　in　name　of

another　person。　If　the　action　is　merely　done　in　the　place　of

another；　but　not；　at　the　same　time；　in　his　name；　it　is　performance

without　commission　（gestio　negotii）；　but　if　it　is　rightfully　performed

in　name　of　the　other；　it　constitutes　mandate；　which　as　a　contract　of

procuration　is　an　onerous　contract　（mandatum　onerosum）。

　　C。　The　cautionary　contracts　（cautiones）　are：

　　　　1。　Pledge　（pignus）。　Caution　by　a　moveable　deposited　as　security。

　　　　2。　Suretyship　（fidejussio）。　Caution　for　the　fulfillment　of　the

promise　of　another。

　　　　3。　Personal　security　（praestatio　obsidis）。

　　Guarantee　of　personal　performance。

　　This　list　of　all　modes　in　which　the　property　of　one　person　may　be

transferred　or　conveyed　to　another　includes　conceptions　of　certain

objects　or　instruments　required　for　such　transference　（translatio）。

These　appear　to　be　entirely　empirical；　and　it　may　therefore　seem

questionable　whether　they　are　entitled　to　a　place　in　a　metaphysical

science　of　right。　For；　in　such　a　science；　the　divisions　must　be　made

according　to　principles　a　priori；　and　hence　the　matter　of　the

juridical　relation；　which　may　be　conventional；　ought　to　be　left　out　of

account；　and　only　its　form　should　be　taken　into　consideration。

　　Such　conceptions　may　be　illustrated　by　taking　the　instance　of　money；

in　contradistinction　from　all　other　exchangeable　things　as　wares　and

merchandise；　or　by　the　case　of　a　book。　And　considering　these　as

illustrative　examples　in　this　connection；　it　will　be　shown　that　the

conception　of　money　as　the　greatest　and　most　useable　of　all　the

means　of　human　intercommunication　through　things；　in　the　way　of

purchase　and　sale　in　commerce；　as　well　as　that　of　books　as　the

greatest　means　of　carrying　on　the　interchange　of　thought；　resolve

themselves　into　relations　that　are　purely　intellectual　and　rational。

And　hence　it　will　be　made　evident　that　such　conceptions　do　not

really　detract　from　the　purity　of　the　given　scheme　of　pure　rational

contracts；　by　empirical　admixture。



　　　　　　　　　　　　Illustration　of　Relations　of　Contract　by　the

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Conceptions　of　Money　and　a　Book



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　I。　What　is　Money？



　　Money　is　a　thing　which　can　only　be　made　use　of；　by　being　alienated

or　exchanged。　This　is　a　good　nominal　definition；　as　given　by

Achenwall；　and　it　is　sufficient　to　distinguish　objects　of　the　will

of　this　kind　from　all　other　objects。　But　it　gives　us　no　information

regarding　the　rational　possibility　of　such　a　thing　as　money　is。　Yet　we

see　thus　much　by　the　definition：　（1）　that　the　alienation　in　this

mode　of　human　intercommunication　and　exchange　is　not　viewed　as　a　gift；

but　is　intended　as　a　mode　of　reciprocal　acquisition　by　an　onerous

contract；　and　（2）　that　it　is　regarded　as　a　mere　means　of　carrying　on

commerce；　universally　adopted　by　the　people；　but　having　no　value　as

such　of　itself；　in　contrast　to　other　things　as　mercantile　goods　or

wares　which　have　a　particular　value　in　relation　to　special　wants

existing　among　the　people。　It　therefore　represents　all　exchangeable

things。

　　A　bushel　of　corn　has　the　greatest　direct　value　as　a　means　of

satisfying　human　wants。　Cattle　may　be　fed　by　it；　and　these　again　are

subservient　to　our　nourishment　and　locomotion；　and　they　even　labour　in

our　stead。　Thus；　by　means　of　corn；　men　are　multiplied　and　supported；

who　not　only　act　again　in　reproducing　such　natural　products；　but

also　by　other　artificial　products　they　can　come　to　the　relief　of　all

our　proper　wants。　Thus　are　men　enabled　to　build　dwellings；　to

prepare　clothing；　and　to　supply　all　the　ingenious　comforts　and

enjoyments　which　make　up　the　products　of　industry。　On　the　other

hand；　the　value　of　money　is　only　indirect。　It　cannot　be　itself

enjoyed；　nor　be　used　directly　for　enjoyment；　it　is；　however；　a　means

towards　this；　and　of　all　outward　things　it　is　of　the　highest　utility。

　　We　may　found　a　real　definition　of　money　provisionally　upon　these

considerations。　It　may　thus　be　defined　as　the　universal　means　of

carrying　on　the　industry　of　men　in　exchanging　intercommunications　with

each　other。　Hence　national　wealth；　in　so　far　as　it　can　be　acquired

by　means　of　money；　is　properly　only　the　sum　of　the　industry　or　applied

labour　with　which　men　pay　each　other；　and　which　is　represented　by

the　money　in　circulation　among　the　people。

　　The　thing　which　is　to　be　called　money　must；　therefore；　have　cost

as　much　industry　to　produce　it；　or　even　to　put　it　into　the　hands　of

others；　as　may　be　equivalent　to　the　industry　or　labour　required　for

the　acquisition　of　the　goods　or　wares　or　merchandise；　as　natural　or

artificial　products；　for　which　it　is　exchanged。　For　if　it　were

easier　to　procure　the　material　which　is　called　money　than　the　goods

that　are　required；　there　would　be　more　money　in　the　market　than

goods　to　be　sold；　and　because　the　seller　would　then　have　to　expend

more　labour　upon　his　goods　than　the　buyer　on　the　equivalent；　the　money

coming　in　to　him　more　rapidly；　the　labour　applied　to　the　preparation

of　goods　and　industry　generally；　with　the　industrial　productivity

which　is　the　source　of　the　public　wealth；　would　at　the　same　time

dwindle　and　be　cut　down。　Hence　bank　notes　and　assignations　are　not

to　be　regarded　as　money；　although　they　may　take　its　place　by　way　of

representing　it　for　a　time；　because　it　costs　almost　no　labour　to

prepare　them；　and　their　value　is　based　merely　upon　the　opinion

prevailing　as　to　the　further　continuance　of　the　previous　possibility

of　changing　them　into　ready　money。　But　on　its　being　in　any　way　found

out　that　there　is　not　ready　money　in　sufficient　quantity　for　easy

and　safe　conversion　of　such　notes　or　assignations；　the　opinion　gives

way；　and　a　fall　in　their　value　becomes　inevitable。　Thus　the　industrial

labour　of　those　who　work　the　gold　and　silver　mines　in　Peru　and　Mexico…

especially　on　account　of　the　frequent　failures　in　the　application　of

fruitless　efforts　to　discover　new　veins　of　these　precious　metals…　is

probably　even　greater　than　what　is　expended　in　the　manufacture　of

goods　in　Europe。　Hence　such　mining　labour；　as　unrewarded　in　the

circumstances；　would　be　abandoned　of　itself；　and　the　countries

mentioned　would　in　consequence　soon　sink　into　poverty；　did　not　the

industry　of　Europe；　stimulated　in　turn　by　these　very　metals；

proportionally　expand　at　the　same　time　so　as　constantly　to　keep　up　the

zeal　of　the　miners　in　their　work　by　the　articles　of　luxury　thereby

offered　to　them。　It　is　thus　that　the　concurrence　of　industry　with

industry；　and　of　labour　with　labour；　is　always　maintained。

　　But　how　is　it　possible　that　what　at　the　beginning　constituted　only

goods　or　wares；　at　length　became　money？　This　has　happened　wherever　a

sovereign　as　great　and　powerful　consumer　of　a　particular　substance；

which　he　at　first　used　merely　for　the　adornment　and　decoration　of

his　servants　and　court；　has　enforced　the　tribute　of　his　subjects　in

this　kind　of　material。　Thus　it　may　have　been　gold；　or　silver；　or

copper；　or　a　species　of　beautiful　shells　called　cowries；　or　even　a

sort　of　mat　called　makutes；　as　in　Congo；　or　ingots　of　iron；　as　in

Senegal；　or　Negro　slaves；　as　on　the　Guinea　Coast。　When　the　ruler　of

the　country　demanded　such　things　as　imposts；　those　whose　labour　had　to

be　put　in　motion　to　procure　them　were　also　paid　by　means　of　them；

according　to　certain　regulations　of　commerce　then　established；　as　in　a

market　or　exchange。　As　it　appears　to　me；　it　is　only　thus　that　a

particular　species　of　goods　came　to　be　made　a　legal　means　of

carrying　on　the　industrial　labour　of　the　subjects　in　their　commerce

with　each　other；　and　thereby　forming　the　medium　of　the　national

wealth。　And　thus　it　practically　became　money。

　　The　rational　conception　of　money；　under　which　the　empirical

conception　is　embraced；　is　therefore　that　of　a　thing　which；　in　the

course　of　the　public　permutation　or　exchange　of　possessions

（permutatio　publica）；　determines　the　price　of　all　the　other　things

that　form　products　or　goods…　under　which　term　even　the　sciences　are

included；　in　so　far　as　they　are　not　taught　gratis　to　others。　The

quantity　of　it　among　a　people　constitutes　their　wealth　（opulentia）。

For　price　（pretium）　is　the　public　judgement　about　the　value　of　a

thing；　in　relation　to　the　proportionate　abundance　of　what　forms　the

universal　representative　means　in　circulation　for　carrying　on　the

reciprocal　interchange　of　the　products　of　industry　or　labour。*　The

precious　metals；　when　they　are　not　merely　weighed　but　also　stamped

or　provided　with　a　sign　indicating　how　much　they　are　worth；　form　legal

money；　and　are　called　coin。



　　*Hence　where　commerce　is　extensive　neither　gold　nor　copper　is

specially　used　as　money；　but　only　as　constituting　wares；　because　there

is　too　little　of　the　first　and　too　much　of　the　second　for　them　to　be

easily　brought　into　circulation；　so　as　at　once　to　have　the　former　in

such　small　pieces　as　are　necessary　in　payment　for　particular　goods　and

not　to　have　the　latter　in　great　quantity　in　case　of　the　smallest

acquisitions。　Hence　silver…　more　or　less　alloyed　with　copper…　is　taken

as　the　proper　material　of　money　and　the　measure　of　the　calculation

of　all　prices　in　the　great　commercial　intercommunications　of　the

world；　and　the　other　metals…　and　still　more　non…metalic　substances…

can　only　take　its　place　in　the　case　of　a　people　of　limited　commerce。



　　According　to　Adam　Smith：　〃Money　has　become；　in　all　civilized

nations；　th