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improvement　of　the　land；　upon　the　buildings；　drains；　enclosures；

and　other　ameliorations；　which　they　may　either　make　or　maintain

upon　it；　and　by　means　of　which　the　cultivators　are　enabled；　with

the　same　capital；　to　raise　a　greater　produce；　and　consequently　to

pay　a　greater　rent。　This　advanced　rent　may　be　considered　as　the

interest　or　profit　due　to　the　proprietor　upon　the　expense　or

capital　which　he　thus　employs　in　the　improvement　of　his　land。

Such　expenses　are　in　this　system　called　ground　expenses　（depenses

foncieres。）

　　　　　The　cultivators　or　farmers　contribute　to　the　annual　produce

by　what　are　in　this　system　called　the　original　and　annual

expenses　（depenses　primitives　et　depenses　annuelles）　which　they

lay　out　upon　the　cultivation　of　the　land。　The　original　expenses

consist　in　the　instruments　of　husbandry；　in　the　stock　of　cattle；

in　the　seed；　and　in　the　maintenance　of　the　farmer's　family；

servants；　and　cattle　during　at　least　a　great　part　of　the　first

year　of　his　occupancy；　or　till　he　can　receive　some　return　from

the　land。　The　annual　expenses　consist　in　the　seed；　in　the　wear

and　tear　of　the　instruments　of　husbandry；　and　in　the　annual

maintenance　of　the　farmer's　servants　and　cattle；　and　of　his

family　too；　so　far　as　any　part　of　them　can　be　considered　as

servants　employed　in　cultivation。　That　part　of　the　produce　of　the

land　which　remains　to　him　after　paying　the　rent　ought　to　be

sufficient；　first；　to　replace　to　him　within　a　reasonable　time；　at

least　during　the　term　of　his　occupancy；　the　whole　of　his　original

expenses；　together　with　the　ordinary　profits　of　stock；　and；

secondly；　to　replace　to　him　annually　the　whole　of　his　annual

expenses；　together　likewise　with　the　ordering　profits　of　stock。

Those　two　sorts　of　expenses　are　two　capitals　which　the　farmer

employs　in　cultivation；　and　unless　they　are　regularly　restored　to

him；　together　with　a　reasonable　profit；　he　cannot　carry　on　his

employment　upon　a　level　with　other　employments；　but；　from　a

regard　to　his　own　interest；　must　desert　it　as　soon　as　possible

and　seek　some　other。　That　part　of　the　produce　of　the　land　which

is　thus　necessary　for　enabling　the　farmer　to　continue　his

business　ought　to　be　considered　as　a　fund　sacred　to　cultivation；

which；　if　the　landlord　violates；　he　necessarily　reduces　the

produce　of　his　own　land；　and　in　a　few　years　not　only　disables　the

farmer　from　paying　this　racked　rent；　but　from　paying　the

reasonable　rent　which　he　might　otherwise　have　got　for　his　land。

The　rent　which　properly　belongs　to　the　landlord　is　no　more　than

the　net　produce　which　remains　after　paying　in　the　completest

manner　all　the　necessary　expenses　which　must　be　previously　laid

out　in　order　to　raise　the　gross　or　the　whole　produce。　It　is

because　the　labour　of　the　cultivators；　over　and　above　paying

completely　all　those　necessary　expenses；　affords　a　net　produce　of

this　kind　that　this　class　of　people　are　in　this　system　peculiarly

distinguished　by　the　honourable　appellation　of　the　productive

class。　Their　original　and　annual　expenses　are　for　the　same　reason

called；　in　this　system；　productive　expenses；　because；　over　and

above　replacing　their　own　value；　they　occasion　the　annual

reproduction　of　this　net　produce。

　　　　　The　ground　expenses；　as　they　are　called；　or　what　the

landlord　lays　out　upon　the　improvement　of　his　land；　are　in　this

system；　too；　honoured　with　the　appellation　of　productive

expenses。　Till　the　whole　of　those　expenses；　together　with　the

ordinary　profits　of　stock；　have　been　completely　repaid　to　him　by

the　advanced　rent　which　he　gets　from　his　land；　that　advanced　rent

ought　to　be　regarded　as　sacred　and　inviolable；　both　by　the　church

and　by　the　king；　ought　to　be　subject　neither　to　tithe　nor　to

taxation。　If　it　is　otherwise；　by　discouraging　the　improvement　of

land　the　church　discourages　the　future　increase　of　her　own

tithes；　and　the　king　the　future　increase　of　his　own　taxes。　As　in

a　well…ordered　state　of　things；　therefore；　those　ground　expenses；

over　and　above　reproducing　in　the　completest　manner　their　own

value；　occasion　likewise　after　a　certain　time　a　reproduction　of　a

net　produce；　they　are　in　this　system　considered　as　productive

expenses。

　　　　　The　ground　expenses　of　the　landlord；　however；　together　with

the　original　and　the　annual　expenses　of　the　farmer；　are　the　only

three　sorts　of　expenses　which　in　this　system　are　considered　as

productive。　All　other　expenses　and　all　other　orders　of　people；

even　those　who　in　the　common　apprehensions　of　men　are　regarded　as

the　most　productive；　are　in　this　account　of　things　represented　as

altogether　barren　and　unproductive。

　　　　　Artificers　and　manufacturers　in　particular；　whose　industry；

in　the　common　apprehensions　of　men；　increases　so　much　the　value

of　the　rude　produce　of　land；　are　in　this　system　represented　as　a

class　of　people　altogether　barren　and　unproductive。　Their　labour；

it　is　said；　replaces　only　the　stock　which　employs　them；　together

with　its　ordinary　profits。　That　stock　consists　in　the　materials；

tools；　and　wages　advanced　to　them　by　their　employer；　and　is　the

fund　destined　for　their　employment　and　maintenance。　Its　profits

are　the　fund　destined　for　the　maintenance　of　their　employer。

Their　employer；　as　he　advances　to　them　the　stock　of　materials；

tools；　and　wages　necessary　for　their　employment；　so　he　advances

to　himself　what　is　necessary　for　his　own　maintenance；　and　this

maintenance　he　generally　proportions　to　the　profit　which　he

expects　to　make　by　the　price　of　their　work。　Unless　its　price

repays　to　him　the　maintenance　which　he　advances　to　himself；　as

well　as　the　materials；　tools；　and　wages　which　he　advances　to　his

workmen；　it　evidently　does　not　repay　to　him　the　whole　expense

which　he　lays　out　upon　it。　The　profits　of　manufacturing　stock

therefore　are　not；　like　the　rent　of　land；　a　net　produce　which

remains　after　completely　repaying　the　whole　expense　which　must　be

laid　out　in　order　to　obtain　them。　The　stock　of　the　farmer　yields

him　a　profit　as　well　as　that　of　the　master　manufacturer；　and　it

yields　a　rent　likewise　to　another　person；　which　that　of　the

master　manufacturer　does　not。　The　expense；　therefore；　laid　out　in

employing　and　maintaining　artificers　and　manufacturers　does　no

more　than　continue；　if　one　may　say　so；　the　existence　of　its　own

value；　and　does　not　produce　any　new　value。　It　is　therefore

altogether　a　barren　and　unproductive　expense。　The　expense；　on　the

contrary；　laid　out　in　employing　farmers　and　country　labourers；

over　and　above　continuing　the　existence　of　its　own　value；

produces　a　new　value；　the　rent　of　the　landlord。　It　is　therefore　a

productive　expense。

　　　　　Mercantile　stock　is　equally　barren　and　unproductive　with

manufacturing　stock。　It　only　continues　the　existence　of　its　own

value；　without　producing　any　new　value。　Its　profits　are　only　the

repayment　of　the　maintenance　which　its　employer　advances　to

himself　during　the　time　that　he　employs　it；　or　till　he　receives

the　returns　of　it。　They　are　only　the　repayment　of　a　part　of　the

expense　which　must　be　laid　out　in　employing　it。

　　　　　The　labour　of　artificers　and　manufacturers　never　adds

anything　to　the　value　of　the　whole　annual　amount　of　the　rude

produce　of　the　land。　It　adds；　indeed；　greatly　to　the　value　of

some　particular　parts　of　it。　But　the　consumption　which　in　the

meantime　it　occasions　of　other　parts　is　precisely　equal　to　the

value　which　it　adds　to　those　parts；　so　that　the　value　of　the

whole　amount　is　not；　at　any　one　moment　of　time；　in　the　least

augmented　by　it。　The　person　who　works　the　lace　of　a　pair　of　fine

ruffles；　for　example；　will　sometimes　raise　the　value　of　perhaps　a

pennyworth　of　flax　to　thirty　pounds　sterling。　But　though　at　first

sight　he　appears　thereby　to　multiply　the　value　of　a　part　of　the

rude　produce　about　seven　thousand　and　two　hundred　times；　he　in

reality　adds　nothing　to　the　value　of　the　whole　annual　amount　of

the　rude　produce。　The　working　of　that　lace　costs　him　perhaps　two

years'　labour。　The　thirty　pounds　which　he　gets　for　it　when　it　is

finished　is　no　more　than　the　repayment　of　the　subsistence　which

he　advances　to　himself　during　the　two　years　that　he　is　employed

about　it。　The　value　which；　by　every　day's；　month's；　or　year's

labour；　he　adds　to　the　flax　does　no　more　than　replace　the　value

of　his　own　consumption　during　that　day；　month；　or　year。　At　no

moment　of　time；　therefore；　does　he　add　anything　to　the　value　of

the　whole　annual　amount　of　the　rude　produce　of　the　land：　the

portion　of　that　produce　which　he　is　continually　consuming　being

always　equal　to　the　value　which　he　is　continually　producing。　The

extreme　poverty　of　the　greater　part　of　the　persons　employed　in

this　expensive　though　trifling　manufacture　may　satisfy　us　that

the　price　of　their　work　does　not　in　ordinary　cases　exceed　the

value　of　their　subsistence。　It　is　otherwise　with　the　work　of

farmers　and　country　labourers。　The　rent　of　the　landlord　is　a

value　which；　in　ordinary　cases；　it　is　continually　producing；　over

and　above　replacing；　in　the　most　complete　manner；　the　whole

consumption；　the　whole　expense　laid　out　upon　the　employment　and

maintenance　both　of　the　workmen　and　of　their　employer。

　　　　　Artificers；　manufacturers；　and　merchants　can　augment　the

revenue　and　wealth　of　their　society　by　parsimony　only；　or；　as　it

in　this　system；　by　privation；　that　is；　by　depriving　themselves　a

part　of　the　funds　destined　for　their　own　subsistence。　They

annually　reproduce　nothing　but　those　funds。　Unless；　therefore；

they　annually　save　some　part　of　them；　unless　they　annually

deprive　themselves　of　the　enjoyment　of　some　part　of　them；　the

revenue　and　wealth　of　their　society　can　never　be　in　the　smallest

degree　augmented　by　means　of　their　industry。　Farmers　and　country

labourers；　on　the　contrary；　may　enjoy　completely　the　whole　funds

destined　for　their　own　subsistence；　and　yet　augment　at　the　same

time　the　revenue　and　wealth　of　their　society。　Over　and　above　what

is　destined　for　their　own　subsistence；　their　industry　annually

affords　a　net　produce；　of　which　the　augmentation　necessarily

augments　the　revenue　and　wealth　of　their　society。　Nations

therefore　which；　like　Franc