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The plebiscitum�察�which is simply an appeal to the people outside  of government�察�is not valid when the government has not lapsed�察 �either by its usurpations or by its dissolution�察�nor is it valid  either in the case of a province�察�or of a population that has no  organic existence as an independent sovereign state。  The  plebiscitum in France was valid�察�but in the Grand Duchy of  Tuscany�察�the Duchies of Modena�察�Parma�察�and Lucca�察�and in the  Kingdom of the Two 180                    Sicilies it was not valid�察�for their legal  governments had not lapsed�察�nor was it valid in the Aemilian  provinces of the Papal States�察�because they were not a nation or  a sovereign people�察�but only a portion of such nation or people。   In the case of the states and provincesexcept Lombardy�察�ceded  to France by Austria�察�and sold to the Sardinian kingannexed to  Piedmont to form the new kingdom of Italy�察�the plebiscitum was  invalid�察�because implying the right of the people to rebel  against the legal authority�察�and to break the unity and  individuality of the state of which they form an integral part。   The nation is a whole�察�and no part has the right to secede or  separate�察�and set up a government for itself�察�or annex itself to  another state�察�without the consent of the whole。  The solidarity  of the nation is both a fact and a law。  The secessionists from  the United States defended their action only on the ground that  the States of the American Union are severally independent  sovereign states�察�and they only obeyed the authority of their  respective states。

The plebiscitum�察�or irregular appeal to what is called universal  suffrage�察�since adopted by Louis Napoleon in France after the  coup d'etat�察�is becoming not a little menacing to the stabil´ 181                                                             ity  of governments and the rights and integrity of states�察�and is not  less dangerous to the peace and order of society than ;the  solidarity of peoples; asserted by Kossuth�察�the revolutionary  ex´governor of Hungary�察�the last stronghold of feudal barbarism  in Christian Europe�察�for Russia has emancipated her serfs。

The nation�察�as sovereign�察�is free to constitute government  according to its own judgment�察�under any form it  pleasesmonarchical�察�aristocratic�察�democratic�察�or mixedvest  all power in an hereditary monarch�察�in a class or hereditary  nobles�察�in a king and two houses of parliament�察�one hereditary�察 �the other elective�察�or both elective�察�or it may establish a  single�察�dual�察�or triple executive�察�make all officers of  government hereditary or all elective�察�and if elective�察�elective  for a longer or a shorter time�察�by universal suffrage or a select  body of electors。  Any of these forms and systems�察�and many  others besides�察�are or may be legitimate�察�if established and  maintained by the national will。  There is nothing in the law of  God or of nature�察�antecedently to the national will�察�that gives  any one of them a right to the exclusion of any one of the others。   The imperial system in France is as legitimate as the federative  system in the United States。  The only form or system that 182                                                            is  necessarily illegal is the despotic。  That can never be a truly  civilized government�察�nor a legitimate government�察�for God has  given to man no dominion over man。  He gave men�察�as St。 Augustine  says�察�and Pope St。 Gregory the Great repeats�察�dominion over the  irrational creation�察�not over the rational�察�and hence the  primitive rulers of men were called pastors or shepherds�察�not  lords。  It may be the duty of the people subjected to a despotic  government to demean themselves quietly and peaceably towards it�察 �as a matter of prudence�察�to avoid sedition�察�and the evils that  would necessarily follow an attempted revolution�察�but not  because�察�founded as it is on mere force�察�it has itself any right  or legality。

All other forms of government are republican in their essential  constitution�察�founded on public right�察�and held under God from  and for the commonwealth�察�and which of them is wisest and best  for the commonwealth is�察�for the most part�察�an idle question。   ;Forms of government�察─�somebody has said�察 �are like shoesthat  is the best form which best fit the feet that are to wear them。;   Shoes are to be fitted to the feet�察�not the feet to the shoes�察 �and feet vary in size and conformation。  There is�察�in regard to  government�察�as distinguished from the state�察�183                                              no antecedent right  which binds the people�察�for antecedently to the existence of the  government as a fact�察�the state is free to adopt any form that it  finds practicable�察�or judges the wisest and best for itself。   Ordinarily the form of the government practicable for a nation is  determined by the peculiar providential constitution of the  territorial people�察�and a form of government that would be  practicable and good in one country may be the reverse in another。   The English government is no doubt the best practicable in Great  Britain�察�at present at least�察�but it has proved a failure  wherever else it has been attempted。  The American system has  proved itself�察�in spite of the recent formidable rebellion to  overthrow it�察�the best and only practicable government for the  United States�察�but it is impracticable everywhere else�察�and all  attempts by any European or other American state to introduce it  can end only in disaster。  The imperial system apparently works  well in France�察�but though all European states are tending to it�察 �it would not work well at all on the American continent�察 �certainly not until the republic of the United States has ceased  to exist。  While the United States remain the great American  power�察�that system�察�or its kindred system�察�democratic centralism�察 �can 184     never become an American system�察�as Maximilian's experiment  in Mexico is likely to prove。

Political propagandism�察�except on the Roman plan�察�that is�察�by  annexation and incorporation�察�is as impracticable as it is  wanting in the respect that one independent people owes to  another。  The old French Jacobins tried to propagate�察�even with  fire and sword�察�their system throughout Europe�察�as the only  system compatible with the rights of man。  The English�察�since  1688�察�have been great political propagandists�察�and at one time it  seemed not unlikely that every European state would try the  experiment of a parliamentary government�察�composed of an  hereditary crown�察�an hereditary house of lords�察�and an elective  house of commons。  The democratic Americans are also great  political propagandists�察�and are ready to sympathize with any  rebellion�察�insurrection�察�or movement in behalf of democracy in  any part of the world�察�however mean or contemptible�察�fierce or  bloody it may be�察�but all this is as unstatesmanlike as unjust�察 �unstatesmanlike�察�for no form of government can bear  transplanting�察�and because every independent nation is the sole  judge of what best comports with its own interests�察�and its  judgment is to be respected by the citizens as well as by the  gov´ 185    ernments of other states。  Religious propagandism is a right  and a duty�察�because religion is catholic and of universal  obligation�察�and so is the jus gentium of the Romans�察�which is  only the application to individuals and nations of the great  principles of natural justice�察�but no political propagandism is  ever allowable�察�because no one form of government is catholic in  its nature�察�or of universal obligation。

Thoughtful Americans are opposed to political propagandism�察�and  respect the right of every nation to choose its own form of  government�察�but they hold that the American system is the best in  itself�察�and that if other nations were as enlightened as the  American�察�they would adopt it。  But though the American system�察 �rightly understood�察�is the best�察�as they hold�察�it is not because  other nations are less enlightened�察�which is by no means a fact�察 �that they do not adopt�察�or cannot bear it�察�but solely because  their providential constitutions do not require or admit it�察�and  an attempt to introduce it in any of them would prove a failure  and a grave evil。

Fit your shoes to your feet。  The law of the governmental  constitution is in that of the nation。  The constitution of the  government must grow out of the constitution of the state�察�and 186 accord with the genius�察�the character�察�the habits�察�customs�察�and  wants of the people�察�or it will not work well�察�or tend to secure  the legitimate ends of government。  The constitutions imagined by  philosophers are for Utopia�察�not for any actual�察�living�察 �breathing people。  You must take the state as it is�察�and develop  your governmental constitution from it�察�and harmonize it with it。   Where there is a discrepancy between the two constitutions�察�the  government has no support in the state�察�in the organic people�察�or  nation�察�and can sustain itself only by corruption or physical  force。  A government may be under the necessity of using force to  suppress an insurrection or rebellion against the national  authority�察�or the integrity of the national territory�察�but no  government that can sustain itself�察�not the state�察�only by  physical force or large standing armies�察�can be a good government�察 �or suited to the nation。  It must adopt the most stringent  repressive measures�察�suppress liberty of speech and of conscience�察 �outrage liberty in what it has the most intimate and sacred�察�and  practise the most revolting violence and cruelty�察�for it can  govern only by terror。  Such a government is unsuited to the  nation。

This is seen in all history�此�in the attempt of the dictator Sulla  to preserve the old patri´ 187                          cian government against the plebeian  power that time and events had developed in the Roman state�察�and  which was about to gain the supremacy�察�as we have seen�察�at  Pharsalia�察�Philippi�察�and Actium�察�in the efforts to establish a  Jacobinical government in France in 1793�察�in Rome in 1848�察�and  the government of Victor Emmanuel in Naples in 1860 and 1861。   These efforts�察�proscriptions�察�confiscations�察�military executions�察 �assassinations�察�massacres�察�are all made in the name of liberty�察 �or in defence of a government supposed to guaranty the well´being  of the

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